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Book_ 



CQPXRIGHT DEPCSm 














3 


A TEXTBOOK 


SPANISH 


A* 


International Correspondence Schools 

1 SCRANTON, PA. 


GRAMMAR 



SCRANTON 

INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY 
A-3 















TO 111 

.U 


THE LIBRARY OF 
CONGRESS. 

Two Copie* Received 

sfp ?0 *903 

Copyngnt Entry 

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CUSS Os XXc. No 
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COPY D. 



Copyright, 1903, by International Textbook Company 


Entered at Stationers’ Hall, London 


Spanish Grammar, Parts 1-4: Copyright, 1902, by International Textbook 
Company. Entered at Stationers’ Hall, London. 

Spanish Grammar, Parts 5-12: Copyright, 1903, by International Textbook 
Company. Entered at Stationers’ Hall, London. 


All rights reserved 


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Printed in the United States 


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CONTENTS 


Spanish Grammar Section Page 

Definition and Divisions of Spanish Gram¬ 
mar ..16 1 

Phonology.16 2 

Sounds of the Spanish Letters .... 16 2 

General Rules of Pronunciation .... 16 10 

Vowel Combinations.16 10 

Division of Words Into Orthographic 

Syllables.16 15 

Accentuation or Emphasis.16 17 

Remarks on Pronunciation and Orthog¬ 
raphy .16 19 

The Sentence.16 22 

Parts of Speech.16 23 

Modifiers.16 24 

General Rudiments of the Language . . 17 1 

Number.17 1 

Personal Pronouns . . . . .... 17 4 

Gender. /..... 17 6 

The Verb.j.17 9 

Cases of Non-Neuter Personal Pronouns 17 25 

Rudimentary Principles of Syntax ... 17 28 

The Substantive.18 1 

Classes of Nouns.18 1 

Number in Nouns.18 10 

Gender of Substantives and of Substan¬ 
tive Phrases.18 15 

Neuters.18 28 

Non-Neuter Personal Pronouns .... 19 1 

iii 




















IV 


CONTENTS 


Spanish Grammar — Continued Sectio?i Page 

The Dative and the Dative Case ... 19 3 

The Accusative and the Accusative "Case 19 15 

Reflexive Constructions.19 17 

Relative Pronouns and Phrases .... 19 27 

Indefinite Pronouns.19 37 

The Adjective.20 1 

Classes of Adjectives.20 1 

The Substantive Adjective.20 3 

The Adjective Substantive.20 7 

Augmentative and Diminutive Adjectives 20 15 

Absolute Superlatives.20 18 

Inflection of Adjectives for Number and 

Gender. 20 21 

The Demonstratives Este, Ese, Aquel . 20 23 

The Definite Article. 20 28 

The Indefinite Article. 20 46 

Possessive Adjectives.21 1 

Interrogative Adjectives.21 10 

Numerals.21 13 

Apocopation of Adjectives.21 21 

The Verb.21 24 

Uses of the Subjunctive Mode .... 21 24 

The Hypothetic Mode.21 45 

Pronominal or Reflexive Verbs .... 22 1 

The Passive Construction.22 9 

The Quasi-Reflexive Construction ... 22 12 

Irregular Verbs. 22 22- 

Irregular Participles. 22 51 

Table of Irregular Verbs. 22 54 

Defective Verbs.23 1 

Subjectless Verbs.23 4 

Impersonal Verbs and Constructions . . 23 17 

Primary Meanings of the Tenses ... 23 19 

Secondary Meanings of the Tenses . 23 27 

Verbal Derivatives.24 1 

The Infinitive.24 1 

The Gerund .24 14 






















CONTENTS 


v 


Spanish Grammar — Continued Section Page 

The Participle —Absolute Clauses ... 24 20 

Uses of Some Important Verbs .... 24 25 

The Adverb .. 25 1 

Classification of Adverbs.25 1 

Forms of Comparison ....... 25 4 

Uses of Some Important Adverbs ... 25 20 

The Preposition.26 1 

Uses of a.26 1 

Uses of Other Prepositions.26 12 

The Conjunction. 26 27 

The Interjection. 26 38 

Syntax.27 1 

Order of Words.27 1 

Concord or Agreement.27 16 

Syllepsis . 27 33 

























SPANISH GRAMMAR 

(PART 1) 


DEFINITION AND DIVISIONS 

1. Spanish grammar is a systematic presentation of 
the principles and rules governing the correct use of the 
Spanish language. 

Remark. —Among Spanish-speaking people, Spanish grammar is 
usually called gramatiea castellana, Castilian grammar; and 
the Spanish language itself, lengua castellana, Castilian lan¬ 
guage, or simply Castellano, Castilian. The reason for this is that 
the province of Castile was once the center of Spanish power and 
influence, and its language was, and still is, recognized as the official 
language of the Spanish monarchy. Properly speaking, there is no 
Spanish language, if by this is to be understood the language of the 
Spanish people; for in Spain there are a great many provinces where 
languages are spoken, both by the educated and by the illiterate, that 
are radically different from Castilian, as well as from one another. 

The cultured classes of Spanish America speak and write the lan¬ 
guage of Castile, except that, as will be presently explained, they have 
followed the Andalusian instead of the Castilian manner of pronoun¬ 
cing the letters c and z . 

2. Spanish grammar is divided into four parts; namely: 

1. Prosodia, phonology (literally , prosody), which treats, 
of pronunciation. 

2. Analogia, etymology (literally, analogy ), which treats 
of the classification of words according to their grammatical 
functions, of their derivation and composition, and of their 
changes of form. 

3. Sintaxis, syntax , which treats of the arrangement of 
words in speaking or writing, and of the interdependence of 
their forms according to their mutual relations. 

4. Ortografia, orthography , which treats of spelling and 
punctuation. 

For notice of copyright, seepage immediately following the title page 

i 16 



2 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


16 


PHONOLOGY 


SOUNDS OF THE SPANISH FETTERS 


THE SPANISH ALPHABET 

3. Fetters of the Alphabet. —The Spanish alphabet 
consists of thirty letters; namely: 


a, a 

j, jota 

r, ere 

b, be 

k, ca, or ka 

rr, erre 

c, ce 

1, ele 

s, ese 

cb, che 

11, elle 

t, te 

d, de 

m, eme 

u, ll 

e, e 

n, ene 

v, ve, or u de corazon 

f, efe 

n, ehe 

w, doble u, or doble ve 

g, ge 

o, 0 

x, equis 

h, hache 

p, pe 

y, i griega, or ye 

i, i 

q, cu 

z, zeia, or zeda 

Single 

and Double Fetters.—Each of the < 


4. 

nations ch , //, and rr is considered to be a separate letter, 
because it represents a special simple sound, independent 
of those belonging to the letters of which it consists. 
These combinations are called double letters; the other 
characters of the alphabet, single letters. 

Only the first element of each of the double letters ch 
and ll is capitalized: Chihuahua , Llorente. No Spanish word 
begins with rr. The sound of this letter, at the beginning 
of a word, is represented by r. 

Remark. —In consulting Spanish dictionaries, it should be borne 
in mind that ch and ll are each treated as a separate letter, the former 
coming after c, and the latter after l, in the alphabet. Although rr 
ought to be treated in the same manner, lexicographers do not usually 
assign to it the place of an independent letter: they treat it as a com¬ 
bination following alphabetically the combination rq. 




16 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


3 


5. Vowels and Consonants.—The letters a , e, i, o, u 
are called vowels; the others, consonants. 

When y stands alone (in which case it means and), it is 
classed as a vowel, because it then has the same sound as i. 
It is also customary to class finals (as in lioy, today) as a 
vowel. With respect to pronunciation, this classification is 
correct, for in such cases y has'the sound of z; in other 
respects, however, words ending in y follow the rules apply¬ 
ing to words ending in a consonant. In this work, final y 
will be treated as a consonant, unless otherwise stated. 


PRONUNCIATION OF THE VOWELS 

6. True Sounds and Approximate Sounds.—Many 
of the Spanish letters have sounds that an English-speaking 
person cannot learn from written explanations, or from 
comparisons with the sounds of English letters. No exact 
idea of those sounds can be obtained except by hearing them. 
In what follows, some letters, both vowels and consonants, 
are described as having in Spanish approximately the same 
sounds that certain letters have in English. The student 
that has not an Opportunity to hear these Spanish sounds 
from either a phonograph or a living teacher, may use the 
approximate sounds here given. It is of the utmost impor¬ 
tance that he should learn to pronounce Spanish words in some 
manner; for words that are not associated in the mind with 
some sound or sounds are easily forgotten: one may recog¬ 
nize them and know their meanings when one sees them in 
print, but it is difficult to recollect them when one wishes to 
use, them in the formation of original sentences. At the 
same time, it should be constantly remembered that the 
sounds here described as approximate are only the English 
sounds that bear the nearest resemblance to the Spanish 
sounds to which they are likened. 

7. Sounds of the Vowels.—The vowels are pro¬ 
nounced as follows: 

a, approximately like English a in father; 

e, approximately like English e in possess; 



4 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§16 


i, like English e in me; 

o, approximately like English au in authority; 

u, like English oo in moon; 

y (when it means and), like Spanish i, that is, like Eng¬ 
lish e in me. 

The student is cautioned against the statement, found in 
many textbooks, that Spanish e and o are pronounced, 
respectively, like English a and o in ale and note. T4ie 
following explanations will give a clearer idea of these two 
peculiar sounds: 

If the name of the English letter a is pronounced very 
slowly, it will be observed that its sound is not a simple one, 
but consists of two different sounds easily distinguished: 
the first is similar to that of English e in possess; the sec¬ 
ond is something like a faint or vanishing sound of English 
ee. The sound of Spanish e is that of English a without 
the vanishing sound of ee. 

Likewise, if the name of the English letter o -is pro¬ 
nounced very slowly, it will be found to consist of two 
merged sounds, of which the second is a faint sound of 
English oo. By omitting this vanishing sound of oo, the 
sound of Spanish o is obtained. 

8. Silent u.— The only vowel that is ever silent in 
Spanish is u in the combinations gue, gui, q 2 ie, qui. 

guerra, war I quemar, to burn 

Guillermo, William | quin to, fifth 

When, however, u between g and e or i is marked with 
a dieresis, it should be pronounced: 

vergiienza, shame | lingiiista, linguist 

9. Long Towels and Short Towels.— The terms lo?ig 
and short, as applied to vowel sounds, do not have the same 
meaning in Spanish as in English. In the latter language, 
these terms refer to both quality and quantity of sound; in 
the former, they refer to quantity or duration only. Eng¬ 
lish a is long in ale, and short in man. 

Emphasized vowels are pronounced more strongly, and 
are longer in duration, than those that are not emphasized. 


16 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


5 


Thus, the sound of the first e in este, this, is longer in 
duration than that of the second; and in this sense it may be 
said that the first e is long and the second short. 

It is an obvious fact that an emphatic vowel is naturally 
made longer than a non-emphatic vowel: it would be practi¬ 
cally impossible not to make that difference without disfigur¬ 
ing the accentuation of words. With regard to quality, 
however, there is absolutely no difference between the 
long and the short sound of the same vowel. In connection 
with this subject, the student is advised to be particularly 
careful not to give to short Spanish e the sound of English 
y in many , or of ie in Essie. 

10. Towels Must Be Distinctly Pronounced. — Each 
of the Spanish vowels has one, and only one, sound, which 
is essentially different from the sounds of all the others. 
Vowels are always distinctly enunciated, so that there is no 
danger of one being mistaken for another. This difference 
between the Spanish and the English pronunciation of 
vowel sounds is a very important one. In English, vowels 
are sometimes so indistinctly pronounced that it is prac¬ 
tically impossible to distinguish the sound of one from 
that of another; hence the name of neutral sounds, by 
which the sounds of such vowels are known. Spanish 
vowels never have these obscure, ambiguous sounds, 
which the student should take special pains to avoid. 


PRONUNCIATION OF THE CONSONANTS 

11. b, at the beginning of a word, or after a consonant, is 
pronounced as in English; in all other cases, it has a sound 
intermediate between those of English b and v: The student 
who cannot learn the sound of this letter by hearing it, may 
give it in all cases the sound of English b. 

12. c, before e or i, is pronounced by Spanish Ameri¬ 
cans and some Spaniards like English c in civil, certain; 
by Castilians, like English th in with, think; in all other 
cases, it has the sound of English k. 



6 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§16 


Remark. — The Spanish-American pronunciation of c before e or i is 
not a vulgarism limited to the lower or illiterate classes: it is the sound 
given to this letter by both the educated and the uneducated, the th- 
pronunciation being considered a mark of affectation. 

13. cli, as stated in Art. 4, is considered to be one letter. 
It is always pronounced like English ch in church , much. 

Remark. — Formerly, ch was used in some words to represent the 
sound of English k, as the same combination is used today in English: 
Cl) risto, Christ; archangel, archangel. At present, however, the 
h is omitted from all such words: Cristo, arcangel. 

14. d, at the beginning of a word, or after a consonant, 
is pronounced approximately as in English; in all other 
cases, approximately like English th in though , although. 

15. f, k, 1, m, n, p are pronounced as in English. 

16 . g has two sounds: ( 1 ) Before e or i, or at the 
end of a syllable (as in gente, people; Egipto, Egypt; 
significante, significant ), it is pronounced somewhat like 
English h in hen , hinder; but it is much more strongly 
aspirated. The student who has not heard this sound may 
use in its place that of English h in hen , or, if he is acquainted 
with German, that of ch in the German word ach. (2) In 
all other cases, g has approximately the sound of Eng¬ 
lish g in get. 

17. li is never pronounced. Thus, the words hombre, 
man; ahora, now , are pronounced as if spelled ombre , aora. 
The combination ch is not an exception to this rule; for, as 
explained in Art. 4, that combination is treated as one letter. 

18. 5 is always pronounced like Spanish g before e or i; 
that is, like a very strongly aspirated English h (Art. 16). 

19. 11 has a peculiar sound, which can be approximately 
represented by the combined sounds of l and y in the com¬ 
bination l’yes, pronounced as if it were an English word, 
giving to the y the sound it has in yes. 

Remark. — In some parts of Spain and Spanish America, It is pro¬ 
nounced like Spanish y —like English y in yes. This practice, although 
very common, is not sanctioned by good usage. 

20. ' n is pronounced approximately like English ny in 
canyon (often spelled canon , as in Spanish). 


16 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


7 


21. q is always followed by ue or ui, and is pronounced 
like English k, the u being silent. (See Art. 8.) 

22. r has two peculiar sounds, which cannot be.learned 
except by hearing them. The student that has no opportu¬ 
nity to learn them in this manner may pronounce r as in 
English, being careful, however, to avoid giving it that 
obscure sound which sometimes makes English r almost 
imperceptible — as in north, fourth. The following rules are 
intended for those that are already acquainted with the two 
sounds of this letter: 

1. When standing between two vowels (as in pero, but; 
era, was) , it should not be rolled. 

2. At the beginning of a word or at the end of a word or 
syllable (as in rico, rich; amar, to love; parte, part), it has 
the same sound as Spanish rr, and should be strongly rolled. 

3. Illiquid r, that is, r between b, c, d , f, g, p, or t 
and a vowel, is pronounced with the non-rolling sound men¬ 
tioned in 1. 

madre, mother I grande, great 

letra, draft \ crimen, crime 

4. When preceded by a consonant other than those just 
mentioned (as in Enrique, Henry), it has the rolling sound. 

Remark. — Final r is ordinarily pronounced with an intermediate 
sound between its rolling and its non-rolling sound, the rolling sound 
being given to it only for emphasis. When, however, a word ending 
in r is followed by another beginning with a vowel, the r has the non¬ 
rolling sound mentioned in 1. 

Sur-America, South America | por ejemplo, for instance 

23. rr has the rolling sound of r mentioned in Art. 22, 2. 
This double letter never occurs either at the beginning or at 
the end of a word. 

24. s is always pronounced like English ss in Possess; 
never like English s in was, rosy. 

25. t is pronounced approximately as in English. 

26. v, according to nearly all textbooks, should be pro¬ 
nounced as in English. There is, however, hardly a Spanish¬ 
speaking person, whether educated or not, that pronounces it 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


16 


otherwise than like Spanish b. Perhaps the only exception 
to this rule is the word ve, when used as the name of the 
letter v; but even in this case, the letter is often pronounced 
like Spanish b. In order to make a distinction between the 
names of the two letters, v is sometimes called n conso- 
nante, consonant u , and sometimes u de corazon, heart u. 
(The latter-name is given to it on account of its shape.) 


27. w occurs in very few Spanish words, and for this 
reason is generally, though not properly, excluded from the 
Spanish alphabet. In some words it is pronounced like 
Spanish u; in others, like v. The proper names Wenceslao, 
Waldo , are examples of the w-sound; the adjective wag- 
neriano, Wagnerian , of the z>-sound. 


28. x, according to the usual rules of textbooks, should 
always be pronounced as in English. The majority of 
Spanish-speaking people of all countries, however, both 
educated and illiterate, pronounce the combination ex before 
a consonant other than c or h as if it were written es; that is, 
they give to the x the sound of Spanish s. The words 


experimento, experiment 
explicar, to explain 
expreso, express 


extender, to extend 
sexto, sixth 
texto, text 


are pronounced as if written esperimento , esplicar , espreso , 
estender , sesto, testo. 

The word exacto, exact , is pronounced as if written 
esacto. 

Before h, the combination ex is pronounced as in English: 
exhibir, to exhibit; exliortar, to exhort. 

In the combination exce , the x is sometimes pronounced as 
in English: exceder, to exceed; exceso, excess; sometimes 
like s, the c being silent: excepto, except , is pronounced esepto. 

When exc is not followed by e, the ^ is pronounced like 
excavar, to excavate; exclamar, to exclaim , are pronounced 
as if written escavar , esclamar. 

Those who have not learned by practice how this letter is 
pronounced by people who speak the language, may pro¬ 
nounce it in all cases as in English. 





§ 16 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


9 


Remark. — Formerly, x was written instead of/. Thus, the words 
clijo, he said; trajo, he brought , were written dixo, traxo, although 
they were pronounced as they are today. There still remain a few 
words, as Mexico and Oaxaca, in which this spelling has been preserved 
by some. The best writers, however, spell these names with a j— 
Mejico, Oajaca; and even those who spell them with an x pronounce 
them as if spelled with a j. 

29. y, at the end of a word, has the same prosodic value 
as Spanish i. Indeed, many Spanish-American writers 
use final i instead of final y, writing, for instance, hai instead 
of hay, there is, and voi instead of voy, I go. The same 
writers use i instead of y, and. This practice is not to be 
commended. 

At the beginning or in the body of a word (as in yo, I; 
cayendo, falling ), y has the sound of English y in yes. 

30. z is pronounced by Castilians like English th in 
with , think; by other Spaniards and by Spanish Americans, 
like Spanish s, that is, like English ss in possess. 

Remark.— As in the case of c before e or i (Art. 12), the s-sound 
given to z in Spanish America is by no means a vulgarism, but is the 
pronunciation used by the educated as well as the illiterate. Consid¬ 
ering that the Spanish-speaking population of Spain is comparatively 
small (for in that country are several provinces where Spanish is 
not spoken at all), and that even among those who speak Spanish, the 
Z^-sound of c and z is not used by all, it may be stated that the 
Spanish-American pronunciation of these two letters is today the pro¬ 
nunciation of the majority of educated Spanish-speaking people in the 
world. 

31. Silent Consonants. —The only silent consonants, 
besides h, are: 

d in lox*d, lord. 

j in reloj, watch or clock. This word is customarily pro¬ 
nounced as if written rel6, and is often so written. It is 
not improper, however, to pronounce the /. In the plural, 
which is written relojes, the j should be pronounced. 

t in istmo, isthmus. 

c in the combination xc followed by e, as in excepto, 
except; exceder, to exceed (Art. 28). 

s in the combination sc; as in discipulo, disciple. Spanish 
Americans pronounce this combination like English c in 
civil; Castilians, like English th in with (Art. 12). 



10 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


16 


GENERAL RULES OF PRONUNCIATION 


VOWEL COMBINATIONS 

32. Prosodic Syllables.— In pronouncing a word very 
slowly, we naturally divide it into parts, each of which is 
pronounced with a single vocal effort; and the word cannot 
be further decomposed without altering its pronunciation. 
For example, the word bashful may be divided into two 
parts — bash and ful— each of which is easily spoken with one 
stroke of the voice. Furthermore, it will be noticed that 
each of these parts is pronounced in about the same time 
as a single vowel, such as a or e. These parts are called 
prosodic syllables. 

A part of a word that requires appreciably more time for 
its pronunciation than a vowel must be considered to be 
formed of two or more prosodic syllables. Thus, it takes as 
long to pronounce the part replen of the word replenish as to 
pronounce the two vowels <?, a\ consequently, this part can¬ 
not be one prosodic syllable. 

33. Orthographic Syllables. — In writing, words are 
divided into parts, which usually, but not always, correspond 
to the prosodic syllables into which they can be divided 
when they are slowly pronounced. These parts will be here 
called orthographic syllables. Thus, the word amigo, 
friend , is divided into the orthographic syllables a , mi, go— 
a-mi-go. Each of these parts is enunciated with one stroke 
of the voice, and cannot be decomposed into two or more 
clear, distinct sounds; they are, therefore, prosodic as well 
as orthographic syllables. 

The word causa, cause , on the contrary, although divided 
in writing into the two orthographic syllables cau and sa 
{cau-sa), can be divided, in pronouncing it, into the three 
prosodic syllables ca, u , sa. 

Remark. —The distinction here made between orthographic and 
prosodic syllables is not found in other books. It is usually taught 
that an orthographic syllable —such as cau in causa — is pronounced in 
the same time as a vowel, and should therefore be treated as a 



16 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


11 


prosodic syllable. This, however, is an inaccurate statement. The 
student who has heard the pronunciation of the word causa , knows 
that the a and the u in the combination cau have each its character¬ 
istic sound, which is distinctly and separately heard. 

34. Weak Vowels and Strong Vowels.—The vowels 
a, e, o are called strong vowels; the other two, i and u, are 
called weak vowels. 


35. Two-Vowel Combinations — Diphthongs. —Two 
vowels belonging to the same orthographic syllable form a 
diphthong, or a diphthongal combination. 

A combination of two vowels belonging to different ortho¬ 
graphic syllables is called a non-diphthongal combina¬ 
tion. 

The rules given in the three following articles will serve to 
distinguish diphthongal from non-diphthongal combinations. 


36. A combination of two strong vowels never forms a 
diphthong. Thus, the combinations ea and oe in fea, homely , 
and Icon, lion , are not diphthongs; these words are divided 
in this manner: fe-ci, le-on. 

37. A combination of a strong and a weak vowel is diph¬ 
thongal whenever the weak vowel has not an accent mark 
over it; otherwise, the combination is non-diphthongal. 


Diphthongal Combinations 
estudiar, to study 
Francia, France 
varios, several 
periodico, nezuspaper 
causa, cause 
deuda, debt 
Europa, Europe 
afeitar, to shave 
peine, comb 
tifoidea, typhoid 


Non-Diphthongal Combinations 
mia, mine 
Maria, Mary 
frio, cold 
periodo, period 
aun, still 
continue, continue 
tisues, tissues 
rexr, to laugh 
feisimo, very homely 
oido, ear 


38. Each of the combinations iu and ui is diphthongal, 
except in forms of verbs whose infinitive ends in -uir. 


Diphthongal 
ciudad, city 
veintiun, tzventy-one 
fui, I zvent 


Non-Diphthongal 
construir, to construct 
construido, constructed 
construid, construct ye 




12 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§16 


39. Pronunciation of Two-Vowel Combinations. 

The two vowels of a non-diphthongal combination belong to 
two different prosodic syllables, and each should be pro¬ 
nounced by itself, as if standing alone. 


tenia, I had 
frio, cold 
traido, brought 
envie, send 

habituense, accustom yourselves 


oir, to hear 
aiin, still , yet 
deseo, desire 
cree, he believes 
reemplazar, to replace 


40. When i is one of the vowels of a diphthong, the two 
vowels belong to the same prosodic syllable, and should be 
pronounced together quickly by one impulse of the voice, 
without any pause between them. 


bien, well 
tiene, he has 
Santiago, Santiago 
traigo, I bring 
Italia, Italy 


medio, half 
fue, he went 
fui, I went 
caiman, alligator 
veintiseis, twenty-six 


Particular care should be taken not to split combina¬ 
tions of this kind into two prosodic syllables. For instance, 
the diphthong ia in Santiago should not be splif, in pro¬ 
nouncing it, after the manner of the English combina¬ 
tion e-a in Seattle. 


41. In the diphthongs au, eu, each vowel is pronounced 
with its characteristic sound, as if it stood alone; the 
two vowels, therefore, belong to two different prosodic 
syllables. 

causa, cause I Europa, Europe 

an tor, author | deuda, debt 

In these combinations, the peculiar sound of each vowel 
is distinctly heard. The sound of one does not merge into 
the sound of the other, as in the diphthongs treated in the 
last article. 

42. The two vowels in the diphthong ua belong to the 
same prosodic syllable, and should be pronounced together 
quickly, by one impulse of the voice, without any pause 
between them. 




16 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


13 


cu&l, which 
cuando, when 
agua, water 


averiguar, to inquire 
cualidad, quality 
situacion, situation 


This diphthong has almost the same sound as English u-a 
in quality. 


43. The two vowels in the diphthong ue are pronounced 
together as part of the same prosodic syllable, with the 
sound of English w-e in west. 


puerta, door 
cuenta, bill 
despues, afterwards 


amueblar, to furnish 
cuestidn, question 
pueblecito, small village 


44. Each of the diphthongs iu and tii is pronounced as 
part of the same prosodic syllable, and they have, respect¬ 
ively, the sounds of English u and w-e in the words cute, we. 
ciudad, city I cuidado, care 

veintiuno, twenty-one \ fuimos, we went 


When, however, the u in the combination ui has an accent 
mark over it, the two vowels are pronounced separately. 
Thus, the word fluido, fluid , is pronounced like its English 
equivalent, except for the sound of the final o. 


45. Final y preceded by one vowel always forms a diph¬ 
thongal combination with that vowel, and the two belong to 
the same prosodic syllable. 


hoy, today 
ley, law 
hay, there is 


estoy, I am 
carey, turtle shell 
muy, very 


Remark.— The student should be particularly careful not to pro¬ 
nounce the word muy, very, as the combination mwee would be 
pronounced in English. In muy, the u, not the y, should be emphasized. 
The sound of this word may be represented in English by the combi¬ 
nation mooy, pronounced with the emphasis on the oo. 


46. Exceptions to the Foregoing Rules.— There are 
a few exceptions to the rules just laid down. Some of the 
most important are here given. 

In a few verbs ending in iar and icar, neither the i nor the 
u forms with the a one prosodic syllable: fiar, to trust; 
piar, to pule; and puar, to cut teeth (as in a comb), are 
examples. In these verbs the combination ia is divided 
into two prosodic syllables, as is English e-a in Seattle; the 





14 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


16 


combination ua is similarly pronounced, except that the 
sound of the first letter is that of Spanish u instead of that 
of Spanish i. 

47. The u and the e in the combination flue belong to 
separate prosodic syllables, and the diphthong ne should 
be pronounced as in the English word influenzh , but giving 
to the u its characteristic Spanish sound —that of English oo. 

influencia, influence I afluente, tributary (said of 

confluencia, confluence | a river) 

In the word congruencia, congruence , and those derived 
from it (as incongrnente, incongruous ), the two vowels in 
the diphthong ue are likewise pronounced as parts of two 
different prosodic syllables. 

48. In a few words in which the a in the combinations 
ai and ia is not emphasized, it is pronounced as part of a 
prosodic syllable different from that to which the i belongs. 

traidor, traitor f frialdad, coolness 

The ai in traidor is pronounced exactly as in draido 
(Art. 39), although the i is not emphasized, the emphasis 
being given to the o only. In frialdad , the combina¬ 
tion ia is pronounced as in piar (Art. 46), but without 
emphasizing the a. 

49. In forms of verbs whose infinitives end in eir—as 
reir, to laugh; freir, to fry — the vowels in the diphthongs 
ia and ei are pronounced as parts of two different prosodic 
syllables— ia as in frialdad , and ei as in reir, but without 
emphasizing the i. 

riamos, let us laugh I friamos, let us fry 

reire, I shall laugh | freiria, I should fry 

50. Triphthongs. —A triphthong is a combination of 
three vowels belonging to the same orthographic syllable. 
Each of the following combinations is a triphthong when 
neither of the weak vowels in it has an accent mark over it: 

iai, as in cambiais, ye change 

iei, as in no cambieis, do (ye) not change 

uai, as in continuais, ye continue 

uei, as in no continueis.dfo (ye) not continue 


16 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


15 


The first two vowels of each of these triphthongs are 
pronounced as if they formed a diphthong (see Arts. 40, 
42, 43), and the third vowel is joined to the second as if it 
also formed a prosodic syllable with it. Thus, in cambiais, 
the combination id is pronounced as in Santiago; to the 
sound of the a is then added that of the z, so that the two 
shall sound as in traiga. In this manner, the whole com¬ 
bination idi is pronounced in one prosodic syllable; that is, 
with one impulse of the voice. 

51. If one of the weak vowels of a three-vowel com¬ 
bination has an accent mark over it, it belongs to a different 
syllable, both orthographically and prosodically, from the 
other two, and the word should be pronounced according 
to the rules governing the pronunciation of diphthongal 
combinations. Thus, in seriais, ye would be , the z is pro¬ 
nounced by itself, and the combination ais sounds as in 
amais, ye love; that is, like the English word ice. 

52. Final y preceded by two vowels has the same 
prosodic value as z, and therefore the combinations uey, 
uay are pronounced like the triphthongs uei, uai. 

buey, ox | Uruguay, Uruguay 


DIVISION OF WORDS INTO ORTHOGRAPHIC SYLLABLES 
53. Introductory Rule. — For the purposes of ortho¬ 
graphic syllabication (division of words into ortho¬ 
graphic syllables), diphthongs and triphthongs are treated as 
single vowels. 


54. General Rules. —Words are divided into ortho¬ 
graphic syllables in accordance with the following rules: 


Rule I .—A consonant between two vowels forms part of the 
same orthographic syllable as the vowel that follows it. 


amigo, friend: a-mi-go 
mejicano, Mexican: me-ji-ca-no 
senorita, miss: se-no-ri-ta 
ahora, now: a-ho-ra 
tiene, he has: tie-ne 
peinar, to comb: pei-nar 


autorizado, authorized: au-to-ri- 
za-do 

Europa, Europe: Eu-ro-pa 
asegurais, ye affirm: a-se-gu-r&is 
averigu&is, ye inquire: a-ve-ri- 
gu&is 




16 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


16 


As each of the combinations eh, ll, and rr is considered as 
one consonant, they all follow the rule just stated: 
muchacho, boy: mu-cha-cho I caballero, gentleman: ca-ba-lle-ro 

hacha, ax: ha-cha | ferrocarril, railroad: fe-rro-ca-rril 

Silent u and the e or i following it are treated as one vowel: 
aguila, eagle: d-gui-la I ceguedad, blindness: ce-gue-dad 

aqui, here', a-qui | paquete, package: pa-que-te 


Rule II. — When 1 or r is preceded by one of the consonants 
b, c, d, f, g, p, t, the combination is, for purposes of syllabi¬ 


cation, treated as one consonant, 
hablar, to speak: ha-blar 
posible, possible: po-si-ble 
fratricidio, fratricide: fra-tri- 
ci-dio 


and therefore follows Rule I. 
agricola, agricultural: a-gri-co-la 
apruebo, 1 approve: a-prue-bo 
tratable, tractable: tra-ta-ble 


Exceptions. — In compound words beginning with any of 
the Latin particles ab, ob, sub, followed by r or 1, the particle 
forms a separate syllable, both orthographically and pros- 
odically: the r has the rolling sound of rr, and the 1 is 
pronounced as at the beginning of a word. 

abrogar, to abrogate: ab-ro-gar I subrayar, to underscore: 
sublunar, sublunar: sub-lu-nar | sub-ra-yar 


Rule III. — A combination of two or more consonants between 
two vowels is divided thus: the last consonant belongs to the 
same orthographic syllable as the vowel following it; the others, 
to the same syllable as the vowel preceding them. 
conversar, to converse: con-ver-sar empezar, to begin: em-pe-zar 
constitucion, constitution: cons-ti- obst&culo, obstacle: obs-td-cu-lo 
tu-cion 

In the application of this rule, what was stated in Rule II 
should be borne in mind. 

construccidn, construction: cons- I ingles, English: in-gles 
truc-cion 

Rule IV. — The two vowels of a non-diphthongal combina¬ 
tion belong to different syllables, both orthographically and 
prosodically . 

creo, / believe: cre-o tenia, / had: te-ni-a 

desear, to desire: de-se-ar lee, he reads: le-e 

periodo, period: pe-ri-o-do j poesia, poetry: po-e-si-a 





§16 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


17 


RULES FOR ACCENTUATION OR EMPHASIS 

55. Accent.—By accent, or empliasis, is meant the 
special vocal stress laid on one or more vowels of a word; 
a stress that causes the vowel on which it is laid to be 
heard more distinctly than the others, and the syllable 
to which it belongs to be longer in duration than the other 
syllables. In the words cubano, Cuban, and calle, street, 
the accent is on the a; in espanol, Spanish, and senor, 
sir, on the o. 

The subject of accentuation is of the utmost importance, 
and the student should take particular pains with it. Some 
words, although consisting of the same letters, have very 
different meanings, according to which of their vowels is 
emphasized. Thus, esta (emphasis on e) means this, while 
esta (emphasis on a) means is. 

56. General Rules. — The vowel to be emphasized in a 
Spanish word is often indicated by a graphic accent (') 
placed over it. In Spanish, this mark is called tilde, and 
sometimes acento, accent. A great many words, however, 
have no graphic accent, and it is therefore necessary to have 
fixed rules by which written words may be properly accented 
in reading. Fortunately, these rules are exceedingly simple. 
They are as follows: 

Rule I .—A vowel having an accent mark over it should be 
emphasized. 

Rule II. — When a weak vowel occurs in combination with 
a strong vote el, it should not be emphasized, unless it has an 
accent mark over it. 

Francia, France I Maria, Mary 

prefiero, I prefer \ envieme, send me 

It follows from this rule that, when an orthographic sylla¬ 
ble containing a diphthong or a triphthong is to be empha¬ 
sized, the emphasis should be given to the strong vowel. 

Rule III. — A word ending in -n, -s, or any vowel, and 
having no accent mark, should be emphasized on the ortho¬ 
graphic syllable next to the last. 


18 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§16 


Carmen, Carmen 
orden, order 
gravamen, encumbrance 
martes, Tuesday 
senores, gentlemen 
comisteis, ye ate 


casa, house 
amigo, friend 
causa, cause 
siempre, always 
tifoidea, typhoid 
impuesto, tax 


In applying this, as well as other rules for accentuation, 
the rules of syllabication should be borne in mind. The 
words comisteis , tifoidea , and impuesto , for instance, are 
divided in this manner: co-mis-teis, ti-foi-de-a , im-pues-to. 


Exception. —In sino, but , the o, not the i, is the emphatic 
vowel. 


Rule IV. —A word ending in any consonant (y included) 
other than -n or -s, and having no acce?it mark , should be 
emphasized on the last orthographic syllable. 


preguntar, to ask 
realidad, reality 
comer, to eat 
virtud, virtue 


reloj, watch 
especial, especial 
Paraguay, Paraguay 
abril, April 


Rule V. — Adverbs ending in -mente should be emphasized on 
two syllables , namely: on the emphatic syllable of the adjective 
from which they are derived , and o?i the first e of the ending 

-mente. 

In the following words, the emphatic vowels and diph¬ 
thongs are printed in heavy type: 

facilmente, easily I propiamente, properly 

especialmente, especially \ abiertamente, openly 

In order to determine what syllable should be emphasized 
in the part preceding the ending -mente, omit the ending, 
and emphasize the remaining part according to the rules 
already laid down. Thus, disregarding the ending -mente in 
especialmente, we obtain especial , which, by Rule IV, should be 
accented on the a of the diphthong ia. 


Rule VI. — With the exceptions of the word asimismo 
(which means in the same manner , and is pronounced as if 
written asi mismo) and adverbs ending in -mente, no 
Spanish word has more than one emphasized vowel. 

This is a most important rule, and should be carefully 




16 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


19 


observed. In some English words, especially in long words, 
there are two emphasized vowels: thus, in representative , both 
the first and third e are emphasized. In Spanish, on the con¬ 
trary, no word (with the exceptions just pointed out) should 
be accented on more than one vowel, however long the 
word may be. For example, extraordinarlo, extraordi¬ 
nary, should be accented on the second a , and on that vowel 
only; in representative, representative , the i, and the i only, 
should be emphasized. 


REMARKS ON PRONUNCIATION ANT) ORTHOGRAPHY 

57. The foregoing rules refer, as regards orthography, 
to the system of graphic accentuation followed by the best 
modern authorities; and, as regards pronunciation, to the 
manner in which words and letters are pronounced in formal 
and absolutely pure language. There are, however, some 
good writers that follow a system of accentuation different 
from that here adopted, and to words written according to 
that system the rules given in the preceding articles do not 
apply. Furthermore, the sounds of vowels are often modi¬ 
fied in ordinary conversation, and it is of importance that 
the student should be acquainted with these modifications. 

58. The Graphic Accent,. — Until not long ago, the gen¬ 
eral practice was not to exclude the letters n and s from 
Rule IV, given in Art. 56; and, therefore, words ending in 
either of these letters, and having no accent mark, were 
emphasized on the last syllable. Conversely, in words 
ending in either of these letters and having the prosodic 
accent on a syllable before the last, the accented vowel was 
written with an accent mark over it. 


New Style 


Old Style 


boton, button 
leccion, lesson 
orden, order 
joven, young 
portugues, Portuguese 
Jesus, Jesus 
martes, Tuesday 
Mercedes, Mercedes 


boton 

leccion 

orden 

joven 


portugues 


Jesus 

m&rtes 


Mercedes 




20 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§16 


From this rule, however, were excepted verbal forms and 
the plurals of substantives and adjectives, which were writ¬ 
ten as they are at present: 


casas, houses 
costosos, expensive 
hablan, they speak 


consideraban, they considered 
hablas, thou speakest 
considerabas, thou consideredst 


59. Forms of verbs whose infinitive ends in -uir (see 
Art. 38) are written by some without an accent mark over 
the i, although the i is the emphatic vowel in such forms. 
Thus, 

construir, to construct j construido, constructed 

construid, construct (ye) \ construimos, we constructed 


60. In verbal forms ending in ia, iamos, iste, the accent 
mark over the i is often omitted, notwithstanding that the i 
is the emphatic vowel in such forms: habia is written instead 
of habia, I had; habiamos instead of liabiarnos, we had; 
creiste instead of creiste, thou believedst; creimos instead of 
creimos, we believed. 

61. Coalescence and Elision of Vowel Sounds.— In 
ordinary conversation, the sound of an unaccented a at 
the end of a word is often omitted, if' the following word 
begins with a vowel sound: liabla usted, do you speak , is 
pronounced ha blusted; niiia hermosa, beautiful girl, is 
pronounced ni hermosa; estaba alia, / was there , is pro¬ 
nounced estaba lla. 

62. The last example is but a special case of a general 
practice; namely, that of pronouncing all combinations of 
two equal vowel sounds, whether they occur in the same or 
in different words, like one vowel. Thus, cree usted, do 
you believe, is pronounced ere usted; reemplazar, to replace, 
is pronounced remplazar; cuatro horas, femr hours, is pro¬ 
nounced cua troras; si iremos, we will go, is pronounced 
si remos. There are, however, many exceptions to this 
practice. For instance, in coordinar, to coordinate, and 
friisimo, very cold, the double vowels are never reduced to 
one sound. 



§16 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


21 


63. The conjunction y, and, preceded by a word ending 
in a vowel, is often joined to that vowel as if it formed part 
of the same word and of the same prosodic syllable with it: 
liabla y escribe, he speaks and writes, is pronounced hdblay 
escribe; treinta y dos, thirty-two, is pronounced treintay dos. 
In some other cases, the vowel preceding the y is not 
sounded: pruebe y vera, try and see , is pronounced Pruebi 
verd. (See Art. 61.) 

64. The e in the combinations ea, eo is often pronounced 
like Spanish i in the diphthongs ia, io: lo deseamos, we 
wish it, is pronounced lo desiamos (ia sounded as in Santiago); 
camaleon, chameleon , is pronounced camalion (io sounded as 
in comio, he ate). 

65. Final e followed by a vowel is also often pronounced 
like Spanish i; the initial vowel is joined to it as if it 
belonged to the same word and formed a diphthong with 
the i: sabe listed, do you know, is pronounced sabius ted. 

66. Final o followed by a vowel and not accented, is 
generally pronounced like Spanish u, forming a diphthongal 
combination with that vowel: solo eso, that only, is 
pronounced so lueso, with the combination ue sounded as in 
puedo, I can. 

67. The sound of d is by some omitted in words ending 
in do, da, preceded by a vowel. This practice, however, is a 
vulgarism, almost exclusively confined to the illiterate. 
They say colorao instead of Colorado, red; toa instead of 
toda, all; naa, or na, instead of nada, all. 

68. The omission of the sound of final d—uste for usted, 
you; mitd for mi tad, half—is common, but only among the 
uneducated, or in the careless language of very familiar 
intercourse. 

69. The preceding, as well >as other similar departures 
from the exact rules of pronunciation, cannot themselves be 
formulated into general rules, and must be learned by 


22 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


16 


practice. They are, however, of such a nature, that they are 
not likely to cause the beginner any trouble: they arise from 
what may be called natural modifications made almost 
necessary by the character of the sounds themselves, when 
combined in certain manners and pronounced quickly. 


THE SENTENCE 


DEFINITIONS 


DEFINITION OF THE SENTENCE 
70. A sentence (Spanish oracion) is a combination of 


words expressing a complete 
La ciudad de W&shington es la 
capital de los Estados Unidos. 
Espana no tiene armada. 
iEs usted comerciante? 

Vaya usted al correo. 


thought. 

The city of Washington is the 
capital of the United States. 
Spain has no navy. 

Are you a merchant? 

Go (you) to the post office. 


SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 

71. There is, in almost every sentence, a word or com¬ 
bination of words denoting the thing or things about which 
something is said or asked, or of which something is wanted. 
This part represents the main object of the thought 
expressed in the sentence, and is called the subject of the 
sentence. The other part, which denotes what is said, 
asked, or wanted of the thing or things represented by the 
subject, is called the predicate of the sentence. 

In the following sentences, the subject is printed in Italic; 
the predicate, in Roman: 


Washington es una ciudad. 

La ciudad de Washington es muy 
bonita. 

Yo hablo varios idiomas. 

I Usted donde vive? 


Washington is a city. 

The city of Washington is very 
pretty. 

I speak several languages. 

Where do you live? 


Remark.— In Spanish, a sentence is often called proposicion, 
proposition. The subject is called sujeto, and the predicate, 
atributo. The latter word literally means attribute, but is not 
used in the same sense as this English term. 








§16 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


23 


CLASSES OF SENTENCES 

72. Sentences are divided into various classes, accord¬ 
ing to the purposes they serve and the forms they take. 
Among them are: 

1. The affirmative sentence: the sentence used in 
making a positive statement or direct affirmation. The first 
sentence given in Art. 70 is an example. 

2. The negative sentence: the sentence used in making 
a direct denial. The second sentence given in Art. 70 
belongs to this class. 

3. The interrogative sentence: the sentence used in 
asking a question —as the third sentence in Art. 70. 

Other classes of sentences will be defined elsewhere, when 
the student’s familiarity with the terms used is sufficient to 
make the definitions clear to him. 


PARTS OF SPEECH 


GRAMMATICAL CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS 

73. With regard to their grammatical functions, words 
have been divided into classes called parts of speecli. 
Grammarians do not agree on the number of these parts: 
some recognize seven, some eight, some nine, and some 
ten. This difference of opinion exists among grammarians 
of nearly all languages, and is due to the very nature of the 
subject, which is a difficult one. 

In this Course will be adopted the classification introduced 
by don Andres Bello, a prominent Venezuelan man of letters, 
whose Gramdtica castellana is reputed, both in Spain and in 
Spanish America, as the best work ever written on the sub¬ 
ject of Spanish grammar. As will be observed, the distinct¬ 
ive feature of this classification is that the pronoun is not 
recognized as a separate part of speech, but is placed with 
the noun among substantives —a simplification possessing 
great logical and pedagogical advantages. 




24 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§16 


The seven parts of speech (partes de la oracibn) are: 
el sustantivo, the substantive 
el adjetivo, the adjective 
el verbo, the verb 
el adverbio, the adverb 
la preposicion, the preposition 
la conjuncion, the conjunction 
la interjeccion, the interjection 


MODIFIERS 

74. Comparing the word house with the expression red 
house, it will be noticed that the former has a much wider 
application than the latter. By joining the word red to the 
word house, a combination is formed that serves to dis¬ 
tinguish a special class or variety among all those objects to 
which the name house applies. The word red, then, restricts 
— that is, narrows —the meaning of the word house; and this 
we express in grammar by saying that red modifies the 
meaning of house; or, for shortness, that the word red 
modifies the word house. 

Likewise, to speak denotes a certain action, which can be 
performed in a great many ways; but, if we add the word 
fast, and say to speak fast, we narrow the meaning of the 
word speak, since that combination denotes only one of 
the different manners in which the action can be performed. 
Here, also, we say that the word fast modifies the meaning 
of the word speak; or, for shortness, that the word fast modi¬ 
fies the word speak. 

Similarly, in the expressions, beautiful flowers, my book, 
to dance elegantly, very large, the words beautiful, my, 
elegantly, very, modify the words flowers, book, to dance, and 
large, respectively. 

Words that are used to modify other words are called 
modifiers. 

75. All the modifiers just used as illustrations are 
restrictive words; that is, they serve to narrow the meaning 
of the words to which they refer--to mark out particular 



§16 SPANISH GRAMMAR 25 

objects or conditions among all the objects or conditions 
denoted by the non-modified words. 

When, speaking of a particular horse, we say, The horse is 
black , the word the is a modifier of horse , in the sense in 
which the term modifier was used in the last article; for that 
word is in this case employed as a sign of reference to a 
special horse —a horse of which the listener is supposed 
to know. 

But, in the expression, The horse is an intelligent animal , 
the word the does not perform the same functions as in the 
example just given; for, far from narrowing the meaning of 
horse , it indicates that the latter word is here taken in its 
most general signification; and, although the habit of the 
English language requires the use of the in this case, the 
sense of the sentence would not be altered if the single term 
horse were substituted for the combination the horse. 
Indeed, where reference is made to man, the proper form of 
expression is, Man (not, the ma?i) is an intelligent animal. 

It will be observed, however, that the combination the 
horse , whatever the purpose of the word the may be, has the 
same form, and can have the same grammatical functions, 
as the combination my horse , in which my evidently is 
a modifier or restrictive word. Thus, we say: 

The horse is a noble animal. I My horse is a noble animal. 

He wrote an article on the horse. | He wrote an article on my horse. 

Grammarians have extended the meaning of the term 
modifier so as to include under this name not only restrictive 
words, but all those words that, like the in the two examples 
last given, are joined or used with reference to others after 
the manner of restrictive words, in combinations having the 
same form and the same grammatical functions as those 
formed with the latter class of words. A modifier is said to 
modify the word to which it refers. 

76. From the logical point of view, a more rigorous 
definition of the important terms modifier and modify could 
perhaps be framed; but, in giving such a definition, there 
would be danger of sacrificing clearness to rigor. Restrictive 


26 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


16 


modifiers are very easily recognized, and by comparison with 
them, other modifiers can be as easily distinguished. The 
student will have no difficulty in ascertaining whether a 
given word used with reference to another in a combination 
is a modifier, by seeing whether, on replacing that word by 
a restrictive word, a combination is obtained' that can per¬ 
form the same grammatical functions, that is, can have the 
same position and bear the same relation to the other words 
in the sentence, as the combination in question. 

This method of defining, and classing words by comparing 
the form of the combinations into which they enter with the 
form of other combinations containing words whose gram¬ 
matical character can be readily recognized from their mean¬ 
ing, is very convenient in grammar, as will be seen in the 
treatment of verbs and adverbs. It often happens that an 
English and a Spanish word are identical in meaning, and 
yet they are not classed in the two languages as belonging to 
the same part of speech, simply because they are used in 
combinations not having the same form, in both languages. 

As this is a very important subject, several additional 
examples are here given. Those in the right-hand column 
contain modifiers that, being restrictive words, can be recog¬ 
nized at a glance; and by comparison with these, the words 
printed in bold type in the left-hand column can be readily 
classed as modifiers. The modified words are printed in 
Italic. 


The sun shines. 

John has a book. 

We have no money. 

We saw three deer. 

This statement applies to every 
woman. 

He spoke yesterday. 

Come here. 


Our sun shines. 

John has his book. 

We have our money. 

We saw beautiful deer. 

This statement applies to that 
woman. 

He spoke well. 

Come fast. 


The foregoing explanations and definitions apply to Span¬ 
ish as well as to English words; but only English exam¬ 
ples have been given, in order to make the subject clearer 
to the English-speaking student. 




16 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


27 


THE SUBSTANTIVE 

77. A substantive is a word that either by itself or 
with some modifiers can be the subject of a sentence. 

In the following examples, substantives are printed in 
bold type; the other words completing the subject, in 
Italic: 

Juan habla espanol. 

Yo soy del Peru. 

El oro es un metal. 

Los hom bres honrados rara vez 
se hacen ricos. 

It should be particularly observed that a substantive is 
here defined as a word that can, not that does, perform the 
office of subject in a sentence; for, besides this office, the 
substantive can perform others, as will be explained else¬ 
where. 

Remark.— The term substantive applies to all those words that in 
English are called nouns, as well as to those pronouns—/, you, they, 
etc.—that can be used as subjects of sentences. 


John speaks Spanish. 

I am from Peru. 

Gold is a metal. 

Honest men seldom become rich. 


THE ADJECTIVE 

78. An adjective is a word used to modify a substantive. 
The words printed in Italic in the examples given in the 
last article are adjectives. 




79. A great many adjectives denote properties or quali¬ 
ties of the objects represented by the substantives they 
modify. Such are bueno, hermoso , catolica, grandes in the 
following examples (the modified substantives are printed in 
Italic): 


Creo que este es un libro bueno. 
La hermosa catedral catolica 
esta situada cerca delparque. 
Francia ha producido muchos 
grandes hombres. 


I think this is a good book. 

The handsome Catholic cathedral 
is situated near the park. 
France has produced many great 
men. 


80. An adjective may be joined to a substantive as an 
immediate modifier, or may refer to it through other words. 





28 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


16 


Este libro es bueno. 

Nosotros llegamos cansados 
La tarea estd terminada. 


This book is good. 
We arrived tired. 
The task is finished. 


When, as in these cases, an adjective is used in the predi¬ 
cate with reference to the subject of a sentence, it is called 
a predicate adjective._ 


THE VERB 


WORD FORMS AND INFLECTIVE WORDS 


81. Word Forms. — Some words undergo changes of 
form, according to the circumstances under which they are 
used, or to their relations to other words in the sentence. 
This subject will be treated at length in its proper place, 
but a passing notice of it is necessary here, in order to give 
a clear idea of the Spanish verb. 

There is a certain action named by the word hablar, to 
speak. Let us now take the expressions, 

Juan habla, Juan hablo. \ John speaks, John spoke. 

In the first sentence, the word habla denotes exactly the 
same action as is denoted by the word hablar , but the 
former is used only when the action is being performed by a 
person spoken oi—Juan. In the second sentence, the action 
denoted by habld is identical with the action denoted by 
hablar and habla , but the word hablo indicates that the action 
referred to is a past action. 

Here we have several words having the same general 
signification. They all serve to denote the same action, and 
may be regarded as being really the same word in different 
forms. The word hablar , which expresses the action in 
its most unrestricted manner, is considered to be the name 
of the action, while habla , habld , hablard, etc., are consid¬ 
ered to be different forms of the word hablar. 

82. Inflective Words.—Words having different forms, 
in the sense in which this term has just been explained, are 
called inflective words. Thus, the adjective bueno, 
good, has the forms bueno , buena , buenos , buenas, which, as the 





§16 SPANISH GRAMMAR 29 

student who has some knowledge of Spanish must know, are 
used, respectively, with masculine singular, feminine singu¬ 
lar, musculine plural, and feminine plural substantives. 


DESCRIPTION OF THE VERB 


83. There is a class of words without which no complete 
thought can be expressed, and which are, therefore, indis¬ 
pensable for the formation of sentences. These words are 
called verbs. 


Although the verb is perhaps the most difficult part of 
speech to define, it is one of the easiest to recognize: it 
occurs in the predicate of every sentence, and either forms 
the whole predicate, or serves, so to speak, to introduce it. 
In the sentences, 


Yo hablo, 

Mi amigo no zrive aqul, 
Hemos recibido varias cartas, 
Elios vendran manana, 


I speak, 

My friend does not live here, 

We have received several letters, 
| They will come tomorrow, 


the words hablo , vive, estd, hemos hablado, vendrdn , are verbs. 

The main distinguishing characteristic of the Spanish verb 
is that it is an inflective word having special forms to indi¬ 
cate whether the action or fact stated in the predicate is past, 
present, or future. Take, for example, the sentences, 

Mi madre vino. I My mother came. 

Mi madre vendra. \ My mother will come. 

In the first sentence, the form vino indicates by itself that 
the action of venir, to come , is past; in the second, the form 
vendrd indicates by itself that the action is to take place. 
These peculiar changes of form, which belong to the verb 
only, afford the easiest means of distinguishing verbs from 
words belonging to other classes. 


THE ADVERB 
84. In the sentences, 

f£l lee bien, I He reads well, 

Estoy demasiado cansado, | I am too tired, 

the word bien modifies the verb lee, and the word demasiado 





30 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§16. 


modifies the adjective cansado. Words which, like these, are 
used as modifiers of verbs or of adjectives, are called adverbs. 

An adverb may, in turn, be modified by another word; as 
in the sentence, 

El lee muy bien. \ He reads very well. 


Here the adverb bien is modified by the word muy. The 
latter word is also called an adverb. 


An adverb, then, is a word used as a modifier of a verb, 
an adjective, or another adverb. 

Adverbs modifying’ verbs: 


Los soldados combatieron vale- 
rosamente. 

La senorita Rosa canta mat. 

Yo llegue ayer. 

Usted vive aqui. 


The soldiers fought bravely. 

Miss Rose sings badly. 

I arrived yesterday. 

You live here. 


Adverbs modifying adjectives: 


El precio me parece algo alto. 

Los americanos son poco que- 
ridos en Espafia. 


The price seems to me somewhat 
high. 

Americans are little liked in 
Spain. 


Adverbs modifying other adverbs: 


Yo pronuncio el espanol may 
mal. 

Usted lo pronunciaria mas bien , 
si no hablara tan aprisa. 


I pronounce Spanish very badly. 

You would pronounce it better if 
you did not speak so fast. 


THE PREPOSITION 


PHRASES 

85. Definition of a Phrase. — The term phrase 
(Spanish frase) has several meanings: here it will be used 
in the sense of a combination of words performing in the 
sentence the same functions as one word. For example, 

La senora que preguntb por usted I The lady who asked for you was 
estaba muy elegantemente ves- very elegantly dressed. 
tida. 

The subject of this sentence is the phrase la senora que 
preguntb por usted; this phrase, therefore, is grammatically 







16 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


31 


1 equivalent to a single substantive. The phrase muy elegante- 
mente vestida performs the function of an adjective denoting 
a peculiarity or condition of the person denoted by the sub¬ 
ject of the sentence. The combination muy elegantemente 
is also a phrase, which performs the function of an adverb 
modifying the adjective vestida. 

86. Different Kinds of Phrases.—The following 
kinds of phrases are important: 

1. The substantive phrase, consisting of a substantive 
and its modifiers. 

mi buen amigo americano. | my good American friend. 

2. The adjective phrase, consisting of an adjective 
and its modifiers. 

muy poco conocido. | very little known. 

3. The adverb phrase, consisting of an adverb and its 
modifiers. 

comparativamente aprisa. | comparatively fast. 

These phrases play, respectively, the parts of substan¬ 
tives, adjectives, and adverbs. It is not conversely true, 
however, that every phrase that performs the functions of an 
adjective is an adjective phrase, nor that every phrase that 
performs the functions of an adverb is an adverb,phrase, in 
the sense in which these terms have been defined. It is, 
therefore, advisable to add the following definitions: 

4. An adjectival phrase is a phrase that performs the 
functions of an adjective. 

fista es una mesa de madera. I This is a wooden table (or, a table 

of wood)*. 

5. An adverbial phrase is a phrase that performs the 
functions of an adverb. 

Esa senorita baila con elegancia I That young lady dances with ele- 

(6 elegantemente) . | gance (or, elegantly). 

It will be readily seen that adjective phrases and adverb 
phrases are, respectively, but special cases of the two kinds 
of phrases just defined. 


32 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


16 


Remark. —In English grammar, a substantive phrase is any phrase 
performing the functions of a substantive, and an adjective phrase 
is any phrase performing the functions of an adjective —what has 
been here defined as an adjectival phrase. 


DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PREPOSITION 


87. Definition. — In the phrase de madera , considered in 
the last article, the word de serves to relate the word madera 
to the word mesa; and, likewise, in the phrase con elegancia, 
the word elegancia is related to the word baila by means of 
the word con. Any word that, like these, is prefixed to 
another to form a phrase with it and at the same time relate 
this word to a preceding word, is called a preposition. 

In the following examples, the prepositions are printed 
in bold type; the related words, in Italic: 


Tengo un reloj de oro. 

Aquel libro es de Pedro. 

Esta carta es para el. 

Cuba se leva7ito contra Espaha. 
Esto sucedib bajo la domination 
espahola. 


I have a gold watch (watch of 
gold). 

Yonder book belongs to Peter. 
This letter is for him. 

Cuba rose against Spain. ' 

This happened under the Spanish 
rule. 


The word or words following a preposition and related by 
it to preceding words form the object (Spanish termino, 
terminus ) of the preposition. The preposition and its object 
form a prepositional phrase. 


88. Distinguishing Features of the Preposition. 
The preposition is a difficult word to define. It is, however, 
easily distinguished from other parts of speech by the 
following peculiarities: 

1. It is not a modifier , although the phrase it forms with 
its object may be a modifying phrase. This distinguishes 
it from the adjective and the adverb. 

2. It is a non-inflective word. This distinguishes it from 
the verb, and also from the adjective. 

3. It forms a phrase with the word or words that are 
related by it to preceding words. This distinguishes it from 
the conjunction, now to be treated. 


> 




§16 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


33 


THE CONJUNCTION 

89. A conjunction is a word used to connect two words 
or expressions that perform the same grammatical functions. 


Esa senora es joven y bella. 

Washington era valeroso, pero 
canto. 

Mi hermana toca y canta. 

Eso sucedio en Espana 6 en 
Francia. 

Escribo bien el espanol, pero no 
lo hablo, porque no he tenido 
practica. 


That lady is young and pretty. 

Washington was brave but cau¬ 
tious. 

My sister plays and sings. 

That happened in Spain or in 
France. 

I write Spanish well, but I do not 
speak it, because I have had 
no practice. 


In the first example, the conjunction y connects the two 
adjectives joven and bella , both of which refer to the subject 
of the sentence. 


In the second, pero connects the adjectives valeroso and 
canto , both of which refer to Wdshington. 

In the third, y connects the two verbs toca and canta , 
which have the common subject mi hermana. This subject 
is understood before canta , and so we may also say that the 
conjunction y connects the two sentences mi hermana toca 
and mi hermana canta. 


In the fourth example, 6 connects the two adverbial 
phrases en Espana and en Francia. 

In the fifth, pero connects the two sentences escribo bien el 
espanol, and no lo hablo (that is, no hablo el espahol) , and 
porque connects the last-mentioned sentence with the 
sentence no he tenido practica. 


90. The conjunction, unlike the preposition, is grammat¬ 
ically independent of the expressions it connects, and does 
not form modifying phrases with them. 


THE INTERJECTION 

91. An interjectiou is a disconnected word or phrase 
used to express sudden emotion. 

jay! alas! | jay de mi! wo is me! \ joh! oh! \ jjesus! gracious! 
It may be well to note, in passing, that the names of the 




34 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


16 


Deity and of the Saints are very often used in Spanish as 
interjections, and that no sense of either profanity or impro¬ 
priety is attached to such practice. 

In writing, an interjection consisting of several words 
should be preceded by an inverted exclamation mark. This 
rule applies to exclamatory sentences also. Before interjec¬ 
tions consisting of one word, the inverted exclamation mark 
may be either used or dispensed with, at pleasure. 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 

(PART 2) 


GENERAL RUDIMENTS OF THE 
LANGUAGE 


THE SUBSTANTIVE AND THE ADJECTIVE 


NUMBER 

1. Introduction. — Before undertaking a systematic 
treatment of the parts of speech, it will be advisable to 
define some terms to which it will be necessary to refer 
often, and to state some general rules relating to inflection 
and syntax, which will facilitate the student’s understanding 
of the sentences used through the work as illustrations. He 
will thus obtain a general idea of the character and peculiar¬ 
ities of the Spanish language, before entering upon the study 
of special rules and principles. 

2. Number, as Applied to Substantives.—The term 
number, when applied to a substantive, is used to indicate 
the form or application of the substantive by which it 
denotes either one object or several objects that belong to 
the same class but are not considered as forming a whole. 

3. With regard to number, substantives may be either 
singular or plural. 

A substantive denoting one individual, or a group of 
individuals of the same class considered as forming a whole, 

For notice of copyright, see Page immediately following the title page 
217 





2 SPANISH GRAMMAR §17 


is said to be in the singular number, or to be a singular 
substantive. 

hombre, man I gente, people 

mesa, table | ejercito, army 

Although the substantive gente denotes more than one 
person, it is a singular substantive, for the persons denoted 
by it are regarded as forming a group or whole, which is 
referred to as one object. The same remark applies to 
ejircito , and to all other substantives of like character. 

A substantive denoting several individuals of the same kind, 
without implying that these individuals form a whole, is said 
to be in the plural number, or to be a plural substantive. 

hombres, men I personas, persons 

mesas, tables | soldados, soldiers 


4. Number, as Applied to Adjectives. —Adjectives 
usually agree in number with the substantives they 
modify; that is, they change their form according to the 
grammatical number of the substantives to which they refer. 

The form of an adjective used with a singular substantive 
is called the singular form, and that used with a plural 
substantive, the plural form, of the adjective. An adjective 
in the singular form is also called a singular adjective, 
and is said to be in the singular number; and one in the 
plural form is called a plural adjective, and is said to be 
in the plural number. 

The adjectives in the two following examples refer to 
singular substantives, and are in the singular form: 


Mi hermano tiene el libro ale- 
man de su amigo cubano. 
El hotel donde yo vivo es muy 
coinodo, pero muy caro. 


My brother has your Cuban 
friend’s German book. 

The hotel where I live is very 
comfortable, but very expensive. 


In the two examples that follow, the adjectives refer to 


plural substantives, and are in 

Mis hermanos tienen los libros 
alemanes de sus amigos 

cubanos. 

Eos hoteles de aqui son muy 
comodos, pero muy caros. 


the plural form: 

My brothers have your Cuban 
friends’ German books. 

The hotels of this place are very 
comfortable, but very expensive. 




§17 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


3 


5. Formation of the Plural From the Singular 
Form.—This subject will be fully treated in its proper 
place. At present, it will be sufficient to state the following- 
five provisional rules, which apply to nearly all substantives 
and adjectives of frequent use: 

Rule I. — Substantives and adjectives that in the singular 
end in a vowel, form, the plural by adding -s. 

hombre, man: hombres, men 
deuda, debt: deudas, debts 
sofa, sofa: sofas, sofas 

bueno, good: buenos, good 
verde, green: verdes, green 

The plurals of este, this, and ese, that , are estos, esos, 
respectively. 

Rule II.— Substantives and adjectives that in the singular 
end in any consonant but s or z, form the plural by adding -es. 
ciudad, city: ciudades, cities 

tunel, tunnel: tuneles, tunnels 

joven, young: jovenes, young 

especial, special: especiales, special 

The plurals of el, the, and aquel, yonder, are los and 
aquellos, respectively. 

Rule III. — Substantives (except surnames not accented on the 
last syllable) and adjectives that in the singular end in z, fqrm 
the phiral by replacing the final z with -ces. 

pez, fish: peces, fishes 

capaz, capable: capaces, capable 

Rule IV.— Substantives and adjectives that in the singular 
end in s, and are accented on the last syllable, form the plural 
by adding -es. 

marques, marquis: marqueses, marquises 
cortes, courteous: corteses, courteous • 

Rule V. — Surnames ending in z and not accented on the last 
syllable, and all substantives ending in s and not accented on 
the last syllable, have the same form in the plural as in the 
singular. 

un jueves, one Thursday: dos jueves, two Thursdays 

el senor Gomez, Mr. Gomez: los senores Gomez, Messrs. Gomez 


4 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


17 


6. The Prosodic and the Orthographic Accent in 
the Plural of Substantives and Adjectives. — In the 
plural form of a substantive or adjective, the same vowel is 
emphasized as in the singular form. This often requires an 
accent mark to be used with one form and not with the other. 
Thus, although joven has no accent mark over the o, its 
plural must be written jovenes, not jovenes, as the latter word 
would be pronounced with the prosodic accent on the first e, 
not on the o. (See Part 1, Rule III, under the heading, 
Rules for Accentuation or Emphasis). The accent mark 
of the singular marques, on the contrary, .is not pre¬ 
served in the plural, as* by the same rule, the first e is the 
only vowel that can be emphasized in marqueses, and so 
the accent mark would be unnecessary. It will be observed 
by this that the addition of -es to form the plural always adds 
one syllable, which, in the case of words ending in a con¬ 
sonant, is formed by this consonant and the added termina¬ 
tion -es: jovenes , for example, is divided thus: j6-ve-nes. 

Remark. —The word number is often omitted, it being understood, 
and the terms singular and plural are employed instead of the 
phrases singular number or singular form, and plural number or 
plural form, respectively. 


PERSONAL PRONOUNS 


7. Division of Substantives into Nouns and Pro¬ 
nouns.— Some substantives are used as names, and are for 
this reason called nouns (Spanish, nombres, names). Any 
substantive serving as the name of an object of thought of 
any kind belongs to this class. The following are examples: 


silla, chair 
madre, mother 
virtud, virtue 
hermosura, beauty 


gramatica, grammar 
ciencia, science 
Paris, Paris 
Pedro, Peter 


All other substantives are called pronouns. 

yo, I I tu, thou | el, he 

esto, this I eso, that | quien, who 

8. Person.—In grammar, a substantive is said to be 
in the first person when it denotes the person that speaks, 
or several persons among whom the speaker is included; in 




§17 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


5 


the second person, when it denotes the person or persons 
spoken to; in the third person, when it denotes the person 
or persons, thing or things, spoken of. 

Yo, Antonio, deseo enviar esta I I, Anthony, wish to send this 
carta k su hermano con usted. | letter to your brother with you. 


In this sentence, yo and Antonio both denote the speaker, 
and are therefore in the first person; carta and hermano 
denote, respectively, the thing and the person spoken of, and 
are therefore in the third person; usted , which denotes the 
person spoken to, is in the second person. 


9. Personal Pronouns. — Pronouns may be divided 
into several classes. Of these, only personal pronouns, 
which indicate grammatical person by their form alone, 
need be here referred to. 

The main peysona. pronouns are: 


First Perscn 


Singular, yo, / 

fnosotros, we 
\nosotras, we 


Plural, 


Second Person 

e . , ftu, thou 
Singular , < ’ , 

* [usted, you 

I vosotros, ye 

vosotras, ye 

ustedes, you 


Third Person 

0 . . f el, he, it 

Stngular ,( eUa> ^ u 

piurai, e :; os ’ y 
[ellas, they 


Usted , ustedes are the equivalents of the English you used 
in ordinary social intercourse. Usted is abbreviated in any 
of the following manners: U, Ud., V., Vd. For the plural 
ustedes , the following abbreviations are common: Uds., UU., 
Vs., Vds., VV. These abbreviations, however, should 
always be read as if the words were written in full. 

Tii is employed in solemn style, as in addressing the Deity 
and the saints, and is then rendered by thou. It is also used 
in very familiar style in addressing relatives, intimate friends, 
children, and, in some places, servants: it is then better 
rendered by you, although thou would be the literal rendering. 

Vosotros, being the plural of tu , is employed in elevated 


6 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§17 


style, or in addressing several persons each of whom would 
be addressed by tu. In the latter case, however, the form 
u§Eiks. is preferred by many, especially in Spanish America. 

Usted, although now classed as a pronoun, is a contraction 
of vuestra merced , your grace, and —with one single excep¬ 
tion, to be pointed out in a subsequent article —is grammat¬ 
ically constructed like a substantive of the third person; 
that is, it takes the third persons of verbal forms, and the pos¬ 
sessive adjectives and pronominal cases of the third person. 
So, too, the English your honor, your Excellency , although 
they denote the person spoken to, are grammatically con¬ 
structed like third-person substantives: Your honor is, Your 
Excellency says. 


GENDER 

10. Gender, as Applied to Nouns. — The pronouns //, 
ella, ellos, ellas, are used in place of nouns mentioned in the 
sentence, in order to avoid their repetition: their function is 
therefore to represent nouns. A noun that in. the singular 
is represented by el, is in the plural represented by ellos, and 
one that is in the singular represented by ella, is in the 
plural represented by ellas; in other words, ellos, ellas are 
the plurals of el and ella, respectively. In what follows, it 
will be sufficient to refer to singular forms. 

11 . El is called the masculine form, and ella the femi¬ 
nine form, of the personal pronoun of the third person. 

A noun is said to be masculine or feminine according 
as it is represented by el or ella . Thus, mujer, woman, and 
casa, house, are feminine; while hombre, man, and hotel, 
hotel, are masculine, as appears from the following examples: 


Esa mujer esta gravemente en- 
ferma, pero ella no lo sabe. 

iQuien vive en esta casa ?—Yo 
vivo en ella. 

Aqui estuvo un hombre, pero yo 
no habl6 con el. 

.jCuanto pagd Ud. por este hotel? 
—Pague cincuenta mil pesos 
por el. 


That woman is seriously ill, but 
she does not know it. 

Who lives in this house? —I live 
in it. 

There was a man here, but I did 
not speak with him. 

How much did you pay for this 
hotel? —I paid fifty thousand 
dollars for it. 




§17 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


7 


A masculine noun is said to be of, or belong to, the 
masculine gender; a feminine noun is said to be of, or 
belong to, the feminine gender . 

The term gender, therefore, when applied to a noun, 
denotes the class to which the noun belongs according to the 
form of the personal pronoun of the third person by which 
the noun is represented in discourse. 

Remark 1. —The word gender is often omitted, it being under¬ 
stood, and the words masculine and feminine are used as nouns 
instead of the phrases masculine gender or masculine form , and femi¬ 
nine gender or feminine form , respectively. 

Remark 2. — As will be explained elsewhere, there are substan¬ 
tives that are represented by ello, and are called neuter substan¬ 
tives. Here, however, it is important to observe that the word 
neuter , and the phrase neuter gender, have not the same signification 
in Spanish as in English. In the latter language, the names of nearly 
all inanimate objects are of the neuter gender, and are represented by 
it. In Spanish, on the contrary, all such names are either masculine 
or feminine; that is, they are represented by either H (literally, he) or 
ella (literally, she). 

12 . Gender, as Applied to Adjectives. — Many adjec¬ 
tives have two forms: one is used with masculine nouns, and 
is called the masculine form of the adjective; the other is 
used with feminine nouns, and is called the feminine form. 
An adjective in the masculine form is also called a mascu¬ 
line adjective, or an adjective of the masculine gender. 
Similar terms apply to adjectives in the feminine form. 

The masculine of nearly all adjectives having two forms 
ends either in o or in a consonant. The feminine is generally 
obtained from the masculine by replacing the final tfwith a, 
if the masculine ends in o\ by simply adding a , if the mascu¬ 
line ends in a consonant. 

un hombre bueno, a good man: una mujer buena, a good woman 
un caballero f ranees, a French gentleman: una senora fran- 
cesa, a French lady. 

Among the exceptions to this rule are el, the; este, this; 
ese, that; aquel, yonder , whose feminine forms are, 
respectively, la, esta, esa , aquella. 

13 . The Articles. —The adjectives el, the , and un, a or 
an, are called articles. The former— el— is the definite 
article; the latter— un — the indefinite article. 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


17 


El and un are masculine singular forms. El has the femi¬ 
nine form la , and un the feminine form una. 

The plural of el is los, and that of la is las. The plural of 
un is unos, and that of una is unas. As the English indefi¬ 
nite article has no plural form, nor can be prefixed to a plural 
substantive, unoSy unas are rendered by some. 


H&game el favor de darme un 
fosforo. 

Aqui hay unas cartas para usted. 


Please give me a match. 

There are some letters for you 
here. 


The definite article affords an easy means of remember¬ 
ing the gender of nouns to which that article can be pre¬ 
fixed; and the student is advised to acquire the habit of 
associating such nouns with the corresponding article. 
Instead, for instance, of trying to remember simply that 
mesa means table , he should try to remember that la mesa 
means the table , thus making of the article a sort of indis¬ 
pensable part of the noun. 

There is, however, an exception that should be particu¬ 
larly noted. Nouns beginning with an emphatic a , or with 
hay the a being emphatic, take the masculine form of the 
article, whatever their gender, while either form of the 
indefinite article may be used with them at pleasure. Thus, 
arma, weapony and liaclia, ax, are both feminine, but the 
weapon , the ax , are rendered el armay el hacha; and un 
armay un hacha are as proper as una arma , una hacha. 


14 . Contractions of the Definite Article. —After 
the prepositions a, to, and de, of , the e of the masculine 
singular form el of the definite article is omitted, and the 
/ joined to the preposition, forming one word with it; that is, 
al is used instead of d el , and ^/'instead of de el. The forms 
al and del are called contractions of the article with the 
prepositions a and de , respectively. Observe that in the con¬ 
traction al the a is not marked with an orthographic accent. 


15 . Gender, as Applied to the Personal Pronouns 
of the First and of the Second Person.—When these 
pronouns denote persons of the male sex, they require the 



§17 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


9 


masculine form of the adjective, and are therefore consid¬ 
ered to be masculine, or to belong to the masculine gender. 
When they denote persons of the female sex, they require 
the feminine form of the adjective, and are therefore con¬ 
sidered as feminine. 

Yo, tu , listed, ustedes, are used for both genders. Nosotros 
and vosotros are masculine; nosotras and vosotras , feminine. 

The sentence, / am tired, if used by a man, would be 
rendered, Yo estoy cansado; if by a woman, Yo estoy c ansa da. 
Similarly, Thou art tired , if said to a man, would be, Tu estds 
cansado ; if to a woman, Tu estds cansada. 

The masculines nosotros , vosotros, ellos are employed not 
only with reference to persons of the male sex, but also 
with reference to groups consisting of individuals of both 
sexes. For example, a woman, speaking of herself and 
other persons, among whom there are one or more men, 
should say nosotros, not nosotras. 

Remark.— Neuter substantives (Art. 11, Remark 2) are represented 
by the neuter pronoun ello. For convenience, the other personal 
pronouns— yo,tu, listed , nosotros , nosotras, vosotros, vosotras, ustedes, 
el, ella, ellos —will here be called 11011-neuter personal pronouns. 


THE VERB 


INFINITIVE, PARTICIPLE, AND GERUND 

16 . Infinitive. —The form of a verb that serves as the 
name of the verb, and expresses the meaning of the verb in 
an abstract manner, without any reference to time, is called 
the infinitive of the verb. 

amar, to love I vender, to sell I dormir, to sleep 

pagar, to pay \ entender, to understand | ir, to go 

All Spanish infinitives end in either -ar, - er, or -ir. The 
particle to, which is a sign of the English infinitive, has no 
Spanish equivalent. 

17 . Participle. — In the sentence, El cafe comprado 
aycr y vendido hoy vino del Brasil, The coffee bought 
yesterday and sold today came from Brazil, the words comprado 




10 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


17 


and vendido are adjectives, since they both modify the sub¬ 
stantive cafe. Adjectives of this kind, however, have two 
characteristics that distinguish them from adjectives belong¬ 
ing to other classes: ( 1 ) they are verbal derivatives, that 
is, words derived from verbs —comprado from comprar , and 
vendido from vender; ( 2 ) they are used with the verb 
liaber, to have , in compound verbal forms, as in the 
sentences, 

Yo he comprado, Usted ha I I have bought, You have sold. 

vendido. 

These verbal derivatives are called past participles, or 
simply participles. They are generally obtained from the 
infinitives of verbs by changing the last two letters of 
the infinitive to -ado, if the infinitive ends in -ar; to -ido, if the 
infinitive ends in -er or -ir. 

hablar, to speak: hablado, spoken 

extender, to extend: extendido, extended 
reir, to laugh: reido, laughed 

A few participles are not formed according to this rule, 
and are called irregular participles. The following are 
examples: 

escribir, to write: escrito, written 
ver, to see: visto, seen 

hacer, to make: hecho, made 


When a participle performs the functions of an adjective, 
it agrees in number and gender with the substantive to 
which it refers. In compound verbal forms with haber , only 
the masculine singular form of the participle is used. 


El primer piso estd terminado.— 
Ea escalera estd terminada. — 
Eas dos ventanas estan ter- 
minadas. 

Hemos terminado el primer 
piso. — Hemos terminado la 
escalera. - Memos terminado 
las ventanas. 


The first floor is finished.—The 
stairway is finished. —The two 
windows are finished. 

We have finished the first floor.— 
We have finished the stairway. — 
We have finished the windows. 


18 . Gerund.—There is another verbal derivative, which 
is generally obtained from the infinitive of the verb by 



SPANISH GRAMMAR 


11 


§ 17 


replacing the last two letters of the infinitive with the ending 
-ando, if the infinitive ends in -ar, or with the ending - iendo , 
if the infinitive ends in -er or in -ir. 


hablar, to speak: hablando, speaking 
vender’, to sell: vendiendo, selling 

escribir, to write: escribiendo, writing 

This verbal derivative is called the gerund, or present 
participle, of the verb from which it is formed. 

Remark. — Hereafter, the term participle will be applied to the past 
participle only; while the present participle will always be referred to 
by the term gerund. 


19. Important Differences Between the English 
and the Spanish Uses of the Infinitive and the 
Gerund.— In English, the gerund often performs the 
functions of a substantive; as in the sentence, Saying is 
not doing. Expressions of this kind are rendered into 
Spanish by means of the infinitive instead of the gerund: 
Deeir no es liacer. The Spanish gerund never performs 
the functions of a substantive. 

Likewise, the infinitive, not the gerund, should be used 
after a preposition. 


Estoy cansado de trabajar. 

Esa joven me cobrd diez pesos 
por copiar el documento. 


I am tired of working. 

That young lady charged me ten 
dollars for copying the docu¬ 
ment. 


In Spanish, the gerund is seldom used as an adjective, 
and expressions in which this verbal derivative is so used in 
English cannot be literally rendered: they are generally 
translated by que followed by a tense of the verb. (Art. 26). 


Aqui esta una caja que contiene \ 
utiles de escritorio. 

He leido un articulo que describe 
la batalla de Santiago. 


Here is a box containing writing 
materials. 

I have read an article describing 
the battle of Santiago. 


While in these cases it would be proper to translate 
the Spanish form literally, saying that contains instead of 
containing, and that describes instead of describing, it would 
not be permissible to substitute conteniendo for que contiene, 
or describiendo for que describe. 




12 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§17 


DEFINITIONS RELATING TO CONJUGATION-MODE 
AND TENSE 

20. Inflection. —Changes in the form of an inflective 
word are called inflections. The term inflection is also 
applied to the aggregate of all the forms of an inflective 
word, when they are systematically arranged. One form is 
generally considered as the fundamental form, or the name 
of the word, and the others as variations or modifications of 
this. In substantives and adjectives, it is customary to take 
the masculine singular form as the general name by which 
these words are referred to; in verbs, the infinitive. In this 
sense we say that the Spanish equivalent of white is bianco; 
that the Spanish definite article is el; that soy, I am , is a 
form of ser, to be , and that the personal pronoun of the 
first person is yo, /. 

To inflect a word is to change it so as to give it all the 
forms it can take. 

21. Conjugation.—The inflection of verbs is called 
conjugation, and to conjugate a verb is to inflect it. 

In conjugation, it is necessary to attend to person, 
number, mode, and tense. 

22. Person and Number, as Applied to Yerbs. 
Verbal forms change with the number, and often with the 
person, of the subject to which they refer. A form used 
with a singular subject of the first person is referred to as 
the first person singular of the verb. Similar expressions 
are applied to other forms. Thus, liabla, speaks , which is 
used with reference to a substantive in the third person 
singular, is said to be the third person singular of the 
verb hablar, to speak. 

It is very common in Spanish not to express the subject 
of a verb, either the form of the verb or the context being 
sufficient to indicate what the subject is. When the subject 
is a personal pronoun of the third person, it is seldom 
expressed; when a personal pronoun of the second person, it 
is seldom omitted. 


17 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


13 


Hablo espanol. 

Yo hablo espanol. 

Soy americano. 

Yo soy americano. 

<:Esta su hermano aqui? — No 
esta aqui; ha salido. 

iEsta su hermano aqui? — £l no 
esta aqui; el ha salido. 

,iD6nde vive su amiga?— Vive' 
en la Habana. 

.jDonde vive su amiga?— Ella 
vive en la Habana. 

23. Mode, or Mood. - 

sentences: 

Tu venderas esos articulos ma¬ 
nana. 

Dudo que tu vendas esos articulos 
manana. 

Vende esos articulos manana. 


I speak Spanish. 

I am an American. 

Is your brother here? —He is not 
here; he has gone out. 

Where does your lady friend live? 
— She lives in Havana. 

Consider the three following 

You will sell those articles to¬ 
morrow. 

I doubt whether you will ( liter¬ 
ally , that you may) sell those 
articles tomorrow. 

Sell those articles tomorrow. 


Here are three forms of the verb vender, to sell: they all 
denote the same action and refer to the same time, but they 
indicate different attitudes of the speaker with regard to the 
performance of the action. The first form, venderas , makes 
a positive assertion regarding the action: the speaker declares 
that the action will be performed. The second expresses 
uncertainty regarding the performance of the action, and 
the third commands that the action be performed. These 
verbal forms, which indicate the manner, or mode, in which 
the action or fact denoted by a verb is presented, are called 
modes, or moods. 


24. There are four modes in Spanish, namely: 

1. The indicative mode: the form of the verb used in 
making a direct affirmation or negation. 


Yo hablo. 

La guerra ha principiado. 
Usted no me comprende. 


I speak. 

The war has begun. 

You do not understand me. 


2. The subjunctive mode: the form of the verb used 
to indicate uncertainty or conjecture. 







14 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


17 


Es probable que ese senor hable 
m£s de un idioma. 

Dudo que la guerra haya prin- 
cipiado. 


It is probable that that gentleman 
speaks more than one language. 
I doubt if ( literally , that) the war 
has begun. 


This form is also used in dependent phrases introduced by 
a verb in the indicative mode expressing desire. 


Deseo que usted hable conmigo | 
manana. 


Mi padre quiere que yo hable 
con el senor L<5pez. 


1 wish you to speak with me 
tomorrow ( more literally , I wish 
that you would speak with me 
tomorrow). 

My father wishes me to speak 
with Mr. Lopez ( more literally, 
My father wishes that I should 
speak with Mr. Lopez) . 


3. The imperative mode: the form of the verb used to 
indicate in a direct manner that the action denoted by the 
verb is commanded or desired. A verb in the imperative 
mode is independent —it is not introduced by another verb or 
word; a verb in the subjunctive mode must always be intro¬ 
duced by other words, as appears from the examples given 
above. The following are illustrations of the use of the 
imperative mode: 


Habla tu. 

Hablemos con esa senor a. 
Hablen los hechos. 


Speak thou. 

Let us speak with that lady. 
Let the facts speak. 


4. The hypothetic mode. This mode, which is but a 
special form of the subjunctive, will be explained elsewhere. 


25. Although the indicative mode is recognized by the fact 
that it can be used in making an affirmation, and the sub¬ 
junctive mode is a form that can be used in expressing a 
desire without direct command, it by no means follows that 
these modes can serve no other purposes. This subject will 
be more fully treated in its proper place. 

Remark. —The word mode is very often omitted, being understood. 
Thus, the indicative mode is referred to simply as the indicative. 


26. Tense, or time form: the form of a verb used to 
indicate time with reference to the moment of speaking. In 
the sentence, Usted lmblo, the form hablo, spoke , indicates 
by itself that the action performed by usted is past. In the 





§17 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


15 


sentence, Usted hablara, the form hablara, wilt speak, 
indicates by itself that the action of speaking is yet to be 
performed. The forms habld and hablara are different tenses 
of the verb liablar, to speak. 

Some tenses are obtained by combining the forms of the 
verb haber, to have, with a participle. 

Yo he hablado. I I have spoken. 

Elios han hablado. | They have spoken. 

These tenses are called compound tenses; the others, 
simple tenses. 

In what follows, reference will be made to affirmative sen¬ 
tences only, it being understood that, as regards the mean¬ 
ing of tenses, what is said of affirmative sentences applies 
to other sentences as well. 


27 . Tenses of tlie Indicative Mode.—This mode has 


five simple tenses, namely: 

1. The present tense: the form of the verb used to 
indicate that the fact denoted by the verb is taking place at, 
or coincides with, the moment of speaking. 


Yo hablo. 

Mis amigos viven aqui. 
La tierra es redonda. 


I speak, I am speaking. 
My friends live here. 
The earth is round. 


2. The future tense: the form of the verb used to indi¬ 
cate that the fact denoted by the verb will take place after 
the moment of speaking. 


Yo hablart con el manana. 

El presidente firmara el decreto. 
Nosotros saldremos manana para 
Cuba. 


I shall speak with him tomorrow. 
The president will sign the decree. 
We shall leave for Cuba tomorrow. 


It will be observed that the auxiliary verbs will and shall, 
entering the formation of English future tenses, have no 
equivalents in Spanish. 

3. The preterit tense: the form of the verb used to 
indicate that the fact denoted by the verb is absolutely past. 


Ayer habit con su padre. 

El vapor llego anoche. 

El ano pasado vendimos muchos 
generos. 


I spoke with your father yesterday. 
The steamer arrived last night. 
We sold many goods last year. 





16 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


17 


4. The copreterit tense: the form of the verb used to 
indicate that the fact denoted by the verb is past and coin¬ 
cided with another fact, also past. This tense can be generally 
rendered by the preterit of the verb to be followed by the 
gerund (present participle) of the verb. In the following 
examples, the words printed in Italic express the past event 
with which the fact denoted by the verb in the copreterit 
tense coincided: 

Yo hablaba con mi padre 
cuando us ted entro. 

Cuando ustedes llegaron, nosotros 
discutiamos ese negocio y 
tratabamos de fijar los pre- 
cios. 

5. The postpreterit tense: the form of the verb used 
to indicate that the fact denoted by the verb was to take 
place after a specified past time. 

Su padre me dijo ayer que liabla- Your father told me yesterday 
ria con el sefior Ramirez. that he would speak with Mr. 

Ramirez. 

Here the form hablaria indicates that the action of speaking 
was to take place after yesterday. 

Crei que usted me venderia I I thought that you would sell me 
esas m&quinas. | those machines. 

Here the form venderia indicates that the action of selling 
was to, or might, take place after the past time involved in 
the form crei, I thought. 

The auxiliary verbs would and should have no Spanish 
equivalents. 

28. To the five simple tenses just mentioned there 
correspond five compound tenses, obtained by combining 
the simple tenses of haber, to have , with the participle of the 
verb: the compound present, the compound future, the 
compound preterit, etc. Thus, the first person singular 
of the indicative compound present of hablar is yo be 
liablado, / have spoken; of the compound future, yo habre 
bablado, I shall have spoken , etc. 


I was speaking with my father 
when you came in. 

When you arrived, we were dis¬ 
cussing that business and trying 
to fix the prices. 




17 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


17 


29. Tenses of the Subjunctive Mode.—The subjunc¬ 
tive has only two simple time forms, namely: 


1. The present tense: 
indicate present time. 


Quiza esa senora estt enferma. 
Dudo que los monopolios mejoren 
la situacion del trabajador. 


the form of the verb used to 

Perhaps that lady is ill. 

1 doubt whether monopolies will 
(,literally , that monopolies may) 
improve the condition of the 
working man. 


This form may also indicate future time. 


Cuando Ud. hable con su hermano, I When you speak with your brother, 
digale que deseo verlo. | tell him I wish to see him. 


Whatever the time indicated, this form is always referred 
to as the present subjunctive, or the present tense of 


the subjunctive. 

2. The preterit tense: 
indicate past time. 

El medico me dijo que no hablara 
(6 hablase). 

No crei que mi amigo estuviera 
(6 estuviese ) enfermo. 


the form of the verb used to 


The physician told me not to talk 
(literally , that I should not 
talk). 

I did not think that my friend was 
ill ( more literally , might be ill). 


Other time relations are indicated by this form; but the 
form itself is referred to, regardless of its meaning, as the 
preterit subjunctive, or the preterit tense of the sub¬ 
junctive. As will be observed, this tense has two forms, 
one ending in -ra, the other in -se. In the majority of cases, 
these two forms are interchangeable. When in doubt as to 
the proper form to employ, the learner may use the form in 
-ra, which is always correct. 

The compound tenses —the compound present and the 
compound preterit —of the subjunctive are formed by com¬ 
bining the two simple subjunctive tenses of the verb haber 
with the participle of the verb. 


30. Distinction Between Tense and Time. —The 
two terms tense and time should not be confounded. The 
word tense denotes merely a form of a verb. It is true 




18 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§17 


that this form can be used to indicate time, and on this 
peculiarity the definitions of the various tenses are founded. 
One and the same tense, however, may serve to denote 
different time relations, according to circumstances. Thus, 
in the first of the following examples, the form viene, which 
is the present indicative of venir, to come , indicates present 
time; in the second, future time: 


Mi padre viene con don Antonio. 

Si mi padre viene , digale que 
pronto volver6. 


My father is coming with Mr. 
Anthony. 

If my father comes, tell him I 
shall soon return. 


HABER AND TENER 

31. Distinction Between These Two Verbs.— Al¬ 
though both tener and haber are rendered by to have , they 
differ in that haber is not (except in a few cases to be 
explained in another place) used by itself, but in combina¬ 
tion with the participles of other verbs for the formation of 
compound tenses. Because it is thus employed in forming 
tenses of other verbs, haber is called an auxiliary verb. 
Tener , on the contrary, is used as an independent verb, being 
the equivalent of to have in all eases in which the latter is 
not an auxiliary. The following examples illustrate this, 
distinction: 


;Ha hablado usted con el general? 

Cuando usted regrese, liabre- 
mos terminado estas cartas. 

^Quien tiene mi paraguas? —Yo 
lo tengo. 

Este libro tiene varios capitulos 
muy buenos. 


Have you spoken with the general ? 
When you return, we shall have 
finished these letters. 

Who has my umbrella? —I have it. 

This book has several very good 
chapters. 


32 . Conjugation of Haber and Tener. —These verbs 
are of great importance, and the student should familiarize 
himself with all their forms. Their conjugation is given in 
Tables I and II, pages 32 and 33, which should be carefully 
studied. They should be read horizontally, placing the 
appropriate pronoun before each verbal form; thus: yo tengo, 
tu tienes, el tiene; nosotros tenemos, vosotros teniis, ellos tienen. 





17 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


19 


REGULAR VERBS 

33 . Stem and Termination in Verbs.— As stated in 
Art. 16 , the infinitives of all Spanish verbs end in either - ar , 
-er , or -ir. What remains of an infinitive when these end¬ 
ings or terminations are omitted is called the stem 
(Spanish raiz y root) of the verb. Thus, habl is the stem of 
hablB.v , and ten , that of tenov. 

34 . Regular Verbs —The Three Conjugations. —A 
great many verbs, called regular verbs, are conjugated by 
replacing the termination of the infinitive with certain end¬ 
ings, to be presently specified. These endings depend on 
the ending of the infinitive; that is, they vary according as 
the infinitive ends in - ar, -er, ox -ir. Thus, the second person 
plural of the indicative present of liablar, to speak, is 
Aa^/amos; that of comer, to eat, is comeraos, and that of 
permitir, to permit, is permitlmos. For purposes of con¬ 
jugation, it is therefore necessary to divide verbs into three 
classes, according to their infinitive endings. These classes 
are called conjugations: the first conjugation comprises 
all verbs in -ar; the second conjugation, all verbs in -er; 
the third conjugation, all verbs in -ir. 

35 . Conjugation of. Regular Verbs. —Tables III, IV. 
and V, given on pages 34, 35, and 36, contain the simple 
tenses of the regular verbs hablar, to speak; vender, to sell; 
and permitir, to permit. All regular verbs are conjugated 
after these patterns; that is, by replacing their infinitive end¬ 
ings with those printed in bold type in the tables. As 
directed in Art. 32 , the student, when studying these con¬ 
jugations, should read the verbal forms horizontally, thus: 
yo hablo, tu hablas, SI habla, nosotros hablamos, vosotros habldis, 
ellos hablan; yo hablaba, tu hablabas , el hablaba, etc. 

Verbs not following the rules implied in these tables are 
called irregular vei*bs. 

36 . Remarks on Imperative Forms.—The impera¬ 
tive forms of the second person given in the tables are 
employed in affirmative sentences only. In negative sen- 


20 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


17 


tences, the second person of the imperative is the same as 
the second person of the subjunctive. 


Habla mas despacio. 

No hables tan aprisa. 
Permilidme que os aconseje. 

No permitais eso. 


Speak more slowly. 

Do not speak so fast. 
Allow me to advise you. 
Do not allow that. 


The third person of the imperative is generally preceded 
by que. 

Que liable don Antonio. | Let Mr. Anthony speak. 

Que venclan ellos sus generos. Let them sell their goods. 

Que entre. Let him come in. 


This que has no equivalent in English. 

It has been stated (Art. 9) that, with regard to verbal 
forms, usted is treated as a substantive in the third person. 
With this pronoun, however, the imperative is never pre¬ 
ceded by que. 


liable usted 

Yendan ustedes esos generos. 
Entre usted. 


Speak (you). 

Sell (you) those goods. 
Come (you) in. 


SER AND ESTAR 


37. Uses of These Two Verbs. — Although ser and estar 
are both rendered by to be , they are not interchangeable. In 
general, ser denotes permanent or inherent properties or 
conditions, and is rendered by to be alone; estar denotes 
transitory or accidental conditions, and is rendered some¬ 
times by to be alone, but usually either by another verb, or 
by to be followed by an adverb or an adverbial phrase. This 
distinction is illustrated by the following pairs of examples: 


La senorita 

Carmen es 

muy 

bonita. 


La senorita 

Carmen esta 

muy 

bonita. 



El negocio 

del cafe es 

muy 

bueno. 



El negocio 

del cafe ( esta 

muy 


bueno. 


Miss Carmen is very pretty. 

Miss Carmen is looking very 
pretty (< or , looks very pretty 
now). 

The coffee businessis (naturally, 
or always) very good. 

The coffee business is now very 
good. 









17 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


21 


I Mi casa es muy humeda. 

Mi casa esta muy humeda, a 
causa del mal tiempo. 

El hielo es frio. 

El calentador esta frio. 
d’Que clase de naranjas son 
esas? — Son naranjas agrias. 
d'Que tal le parecen a usted esas 
naranjas ?—Estan muy agrias. 
.jQuien es ese caballero? 
iQuien esta en la sala? 

Ese hombre es ciego. 

Ese hombre esta ciego de pasion. 


I My house is very damp. 

My house is now very damp, on 
account of the bad weather. 
Ice is cold. 

The radiator is cold. 

What kind of oranges are 
those? —They are sour oranges. 
How doyoufindthoseoranges? — 
They are very sour. 

Who is that gentleman? 

Who is in the parlor? 

That man is blind. 

That man is blind with passion. 


According to the same rule, ser, not estar, should be used 
in cases like the following: 


Soy americano. 

Esta taza es de plata. 

Este caballero es de las Filipinas. 

El hombre es un animal racional. 


I am an American. 

This cup is of silver. 

This gentleman is from the Philip¬ 
pines. 

Man is a rational animal. 


It also follows that estar should be employed with reference 
to a person’s state of health or of mind. 


eComo esta usted? 

No estoy bien. 

Esta semana he estado muy en- 
fermo. 

Estamos satisfechos. 


How are you? 

I am not well. 

I have been very ill this week. 
We are satisfied. 


38. Ser is further employed: 

1. With substantives or substantive phrases used in the 


predicate with direct reference 

Usted es ciudadano americano. 
Nosotros somos estudiantes. 
Puerto-Rico y las Filipinas soil 
colonias de los Estados Unidos. 


to the subject of the sentence. 

You are an American citizen. 

We are students. 

Porto Rico and the Philippines are 
colonies of the United States. 


2. With reference to the hour of day. 


I Que hora es f 

Son las ocho y media. 

Eran las cuatro cuando mis her- 
manas llegaron. 


What time is it? 

It is half-past eight. 

It was four o’clock when my sis¬ 
ters arrived. 









22 SPANISH GRAMMAR §17 


It will be observed that the indefinite pronoun it has no 
equivalent in Spanish. 

3. In all other cases in which it is used in English in an 
indefinite manner, that is, without reference to a preceding 
substantive; and in those in which the same pronoun refers 
to a following infinitive. 


Es probable que los paises de 
Europa formen una alianza 
contra los Estados Unidos. 

sEs posible que usted no sepa 
nada de eso? 
iQuien es? 

Yo soy. 

Fut muy facil veneer k los espa- 
noles. 

4. 

Es amado de sus soldados. 

Pedro fue hecho prisionero. 

39 

1 . 

El esta de cdnsul en Nueva- 
York. 

El general Lopez estaba de jefe 
del ejercito. 

Yo ahora estoy de carpintero. 


It is likely that the countries ot 
Europe will form ( more liter¬ 
ally , may form) an alliance 
against the United States. 

Is it possible that you know noth¬ 
ing about that? 

Who is it? 

It is I. 

It was very easy to vanquish the 
Spaniards. 


He is now consul in New York. 

General Lopez was then chief of 
the army. 

I am now a carpenter. 


With participles, to form the passive voice of verbs. 

He is loved by his soldiers. 

Peter was taken (literally , made) 
prisoner. 

Estar is employed: 

In such idiomatic phrases as the following: 


In general, estar de followed by a noun denoting an office 
or occupation indicates a temporary, often unusual, holding 
of the office or exercising of the occupation. In these cases, 
ser can be used with equal propriety, being modified by an 
adverb of time, as the latter is always implied in estar. 

f£l es ahora (now) consul en Nueva-York. 

El general Lopez era entonces (then) jefe del ejercito. 

2. To indicate location, whether permanent or temporary. 


Mi libro esta sobre la mesa. 
^Ddnde estdn mis instrumentos? 
Madrid esta en Espana. 


My book is on the table. 
Where are my instruments? 
Madrid is in Spain. 






§17 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


23 


Los Alpes estdn en Europa. 

Mi tienda estd en laesquina de la 
calle del Comercio. 
Buenos-Aires estd muy lejos de 
aqui. 


The Alps are in Europe. 

My store is on the corner of Com¬ 
merce street. 

Buenos Ayres is very far from 
here. 


Remark. — There are some exceptions to the rules stated above. 
They occur mainly in idiomatic expressions, and will be dealt with in 
a subsequent section. 


40. Conjugation of Ser and Estai*. —The conjugation 
of these verbs is given in Tables VI and VII, on pages 
37 and 38. 


TRANSITIVE VERBS AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS 

41. The Accusative. — In the sentence Yo vendo cafe, 
I sell coffee , the verb vendo expresses an action that is per¬ 
formed on, or passes over to, the thing indicated by the 
substantive cafe. This substantive, which indicates the thing 
acted on, or on which the action is directly realized, is called 
the accusative, or direct object, of the verb vendo. Simi¬ 
larly, in the following sentences, the substantive phrases 
printed in bold type are, respectively, the accusatives of the 
verbs printed in Italic: 


Juan me did un libro. 

Hoy hemos comprado veinte 
maquinas. 

Manuel me mando los perio- 
dicos que listed dejo con 

el. 


| John gave me a book. 

We have bought twenty machines 
today. 

Manuel sent me the newspapers 
that you left with him. 


When the accusative is a substantive indicating a person, 
it is generally preceded by the preposition a, which in this 
case is not translated, and may be considered simply as the 
sign of the personal accusative. 

Veo a mis amigos. I see my friends. 

Hemos llamado a don Eduardo. We have called Mr. Edward. 

42. Some verbs do not, strictly speaking, denote an 
action; some others denote actions that are not performed on 
any object. The grammatical construction of many of these 
verbs is, however, identical in form with that of those just 






24 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


17 


mentioned, and they are for that reason treated as belonging 
to the same class. Compare, for instance, the following 
pairs of sentences: 


j Yo compre eso. 

\Yo crei eso. 

JYo compro cafe. 

[Yo sufro dolor. 

JYo vendo muchas cosas. 
[Yo hablo muclios idiomas. 
J Yo vendo libros en espanol. 
[Yo tengo libros en espanol. 
J Yo veo a don Pedro. 

[Yo conozco a don Pedro. 


I bought that. 

I believed that. 

I buy coffee. 

I suffer pain. 

I sell many things. 

I speak many languages. 
I sell books in Spanish. 

I have books in Spanish. 
I see Mr. Peter. 

I know Mr. Peter. 


In these sentences, the substantives and phrases eso , 
dolor , muchos idiomas , libros en espanol , don Pedro are the 
accusatives of the verbs crei, sufro , hablo , tengo , conozco , 
respectively. 

43. The accusative of a verb may be easily recognized 
by the following 

Rule. — If the qriestion, “^Cual es la cosa — ?” or the 
question , “^Cual es la persona — ?” can be asked, placing 
the participle of the verb where the dash stands , and the substan¬ 
tive or phrase under consideration is the answer , then that sub¬ 
stantive or phrase is the acc7isative of the verb. Thus, 

Yo vendo cafe. Question: jCual es la cosa vendida? 
Answer: cafe. Therefore, cafe is the accusative of vendo. 

Ayer vi a don Antonio. Question: jQuien fue la persona 
vista? Answer: don Antonio. Therefore, don Antonio 
is the accusative of vi. 

Remark.— In English grammars, a substantive which is the accu¬ 
sative of a verb is said to be in the objective case. In this work the 
term case will be used only in connection with personal pronouns, 
as will be explained presently. 

44. Verbs Transitive and Intransitive. — A verb 
that ordinarily can have an accusative is called a transitive 
verb. Other verbs are called intransitive. Of the verbs 
given below, those on the left are transitive; those on the 
right, intransitive. 



§17 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


25 


comprar, to buy 
tener, to have ( possess ) 
creer, to believe 
ver, to see 
vender, to sell 
decir, to tell 
dudar, to doubt 


ser, estar, to be 
ir, to go 
dormir, to sleep 
descansar, to rest 
crecer, to grow 
vivir, to live 
morir, to die 


CASES OF THE NON-NEUTER PERSONAE 
PRONOUNS 


DECLENSION 

45. Definition of Case.— The Spanish personal pro¬ 
nouns are inflective words; they change their forms accord¬ 
ing to the offices they perform in the sentence and the 
manner in which they are related to other words. These 
various forms are called cases. 


46. Tlie Four Cases.—There are four cases; namely: 

1. The nominative case: the form of the pronoun used 
as the subject of a verb. 

Yo hablo; tu hablas. 

Nosotros hetnos trabajado, y 
ellos ban recogido el fruto de 
nuestro trabajo. 

2. The accusative case: the form of the pronoun serving 
as the accusative of a verb. 

Yo te amo; el me ve. I love thee; he sees me. 

Los chinos nos odian. The Chinese hate us. 


I speak; thou speakest. 

We have worked, and they have 
gathered the fruit of our labor. 


the form of the pronoun that, not 
preceding cases, is joined to the 


3. The dative case: 
being in either of the two 
verb without a preposition. 

Yo le hablo. 

Su hermana me pregunto si 
usted nos habia escrito. 


I speak to him (or to her, or to 
you). 

Your sister asked me if you 
had written to us. 








26 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§17 


4. The prepositional case: the form of the pronoun 
used after a preposition. 

Esta carta es para ti. This letter is for thee. 

El no puede vivir sin mi. He cannot live without me. 

The accusative, the dative, and the prepositional cases are 
called oblique cases. 

47. Declension of the Non-Neuter Personal Pro¬ 
nouns.— The aggregate of all the inflections, or cases, of a 
personal pronoun is called the declension of the pronoun, 
and to decline a pronoun is to inflect it. 

The declensions of the non-neuter personal pronouns are 
given below. The notation nosotros,-as is an abbreviation 
for nosotros, nosotras; similarly for vosotros,-as. 


DECLENSION OF NON-NEUTER PERSONAL PRONOUNS 



yo 

tu 

el (usted) 

ella (usted) 

Nominative. . . 

yo 

tu 

el (usted) 

ella (usted) 

Accusative . . . 

me 

te 

le, lo 

la 

Dative .... 

me 

te 

le 

le, la 

Prepositional . 

mi 

ti 

el (usted) 

ella (usted) 



nosotros,-as 

vosotros.-as 

ellos 

(ustedes) 

ellas 

(ustedes) 

Nominative . 

nosotros,-as 

vosotros,-as 

ellos 

(ustedes) 

ellas 

(ustedes) 

Accusative . 

nos 

os 

los, les 

las 

Dative . 

nos 

os 

les 

les, las 

Prepositional 

nosotros,-as 

vosotros,-as 

ellos 

(ustedes) 

ellas 

(ustedes) 


As will be observed, H has the two accusative cases le and 
lo. With reference to persons, either of these two forms 
may be used at pleasure, although le is considered more 
elegant. With reference to animals and things, lo is prefera¬ 
ble, but le is equally proper. 

Either le or la may be used as the dative of ella. 





















§17 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


27 


The accusative les, of ellos, and the dative las, of ellas, are 
sometimes met with, but are not sanctioned by the best 
authorities. 

The cases ml and ti become migo and tigo, respectively, 
after the preposition con: each of these modified forms is 
joined to the preposition to form one word with it: con- 
migo, with me; contigo, with thee. 

48. Redundant Forms. — Since the accusative and the 
dative of usted are the same, respectively, as the accusative 
and the dative of el (or ella , in the feminine), some ambi¬ 
guity may arise in the employment of those forms. Thus, 
Yo le veo may mean either I see you or I see him, according 
to circumstances. In order to avoid obscurity, the phrases 
d usted, d el are often added. 

Yo le vi a usted antenoche. I I saw you the evening before last. 

Yo le vi a el antenoche. | I saw him the evening before last. 


Likewise, 

Mi hermano les habld a ellos. 
Ella les hablo a ustedes. 

El senor Perez escribio a ella, 
y le envio un retrato a usted. 


My brother spoke to them. 

She s^oke to you. 

Mr. Perez wrote to her, and sent 
a photograph to you. 


The combinations le ... d il, le ... d usted, les ... d ellos, 
etc., used as in the examples just given, are called redun¬ 
dant forms. They are often indispensable, in order to 
prevent ambiguity, and are always permissible, even when 
not strictly necessary. Similar redundant forms occur with 
the cases of the other pronouns: they are never necessary, 
and, although always permissible, it is preferable to dispense 
with them except when employed for emphasis: when they 
do not serve this purpose, they are not only superfluous, 
but inelegant. 


&Me ve usted? 
iMe ve usted a mi? 

Ayer te escribi una carta. 

Ayer te escribi una carta a ti. 
El nos escribio. 

£l nos escribio a nosotros. 


Do you see me? 

I wrote thee a letter yesterday. 
He wrote to us. 




28 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


17 


Another form of redundancy is illustrated in the following 
examples: 


iHablousted a don Antonio? 1 
<*Le habl6 usted a don Antonio? J 
l Envio usted la carta a su corres- 1 
ponsal? 

<iRe envio usted la carta a su | 
corresponsal? ) 


Did you speak to Mr. Anthony? 

Did you send the letter to your 
correspondent? 


This form is now restricted to the dative, although for¬ 
merly employed with the accusative as well. 

49 . Rendering of tlie Possessive Case of English 
Nouns.—English nouns have a special form called the 
possessive case, which indicates possession and other 
similar relations: John’s book, That house is my father’s. 
This case is rendered into Spanish by prefixing the preposi¬ 
tion de, of, to the substantive. 


El libro de Juan. 

Esta casa es de mi padre. 

^Tiene usted las joyas de la seno- 
rita Rosa? 

Esto es de mi socio. 


John’s book. 

This house is my father’s (or, 
belongs to my father). 

Have you Miss Rose’s jewels? 

This belongs to my partner. 


In interrogative sentences, the English possessive adjec¬ 
tive whose is usually rendered by de quien, the verb being 
placed immediately after this prepositional phrase. 

&De quitn es esa casa? | Whose is that house? 

&De quien eran los periodicos que Whose were the newspapers that 
usted estaba leyendo? you were reading? 


RUDIMENTARY PRINCIPEES OF SYNTAX 


ORDER OF WORDS 

50 . The Affirmative Sentence. —In affirmative sen¬ 
tences, the subject is ordinarily placed before the verb. 
There is, however, no grammatical impropriety in reversing 
this order; while in many cases, especially in narrative style, 







§17 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


29 


it is customary, and considered more elegant, to place the 
verb first. 


Mi padre llego ayer. 1 

Ayer llego mi padre. / 

Cicerdn hablo en los terminos si-1 
guientes. I 

Hablo Cicerdn en los terminos f 
siguientes. J 

Ustedes muy bondadosa, senora. 1 
Es usted muy bondadosa, senora. J 


My father arrived yesterday. 

Cicero spoke in the following 
terms. 

You are very kind, madam. 


51 . The Interrogative Sentence.—In interrogative 
sentences, the verb is usually placed before the subject; but 
the inverse order is equally proper, and very commonly 
employed, especially if the subject is a noun. The intona¬ 
tion of the voice in speaking, and the interrogation marks 
(of which an inverted one is placed at the beginning of 
every interrogative sentence) in writing, serve to indicate 
whether a sentence is interrogative or not. 


/Habla usted espanol? 
gUsted habla espanol? 

$Ha llegado ya don Antonio? 
&Don Antonio ha llegado ya? 
dDonde estd su amigo ? 

$Su amigo donde estd ? 
iCu&ndo vino ese caballero? 
&Ese caballero cu&ndo vino? 


Do you speak Spanish? 

Has Mr. Anthony arrived already? 
Where is your friend? 

When did that gentleman arrive? 


As will be observed, there is no Spanish verb correspond¬ 
ing to the English auxiliary do used in interrogative 
sentences. 


52. The Negative Sentence. —Negative sentences are 
formed by placing the adverb no, not , before the verb. As 
in the case of interrogative sentences, the English auxiliary 
do has no Spanish equivalent. 


Yo no hablo espanol. 

El doctor Ramirez no vive aqui. 

No desea usted ir a dar un paseo ? 
iEse caballero no pertenece a la 
sociedad geografica? 


I do not speak Spanish. 

Doctor Ramirez does not live here. 
Do you not wish to go for a walk? 
Does not that gentleman belong 
to the geographical society? 





30 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§17 


53. Position of the Cases of Personal Pronouns. 
With the infinitive, the gerund, and the imperative, cases are 
placed after the verb, forming one word with the latter; with 
other verbal forms, usually before. 


Vino a ven lie. 

Deseo hablar\e. 

No he podido pagarlea esa suma. 

Estoy esperdndo los. 

De\o esta carta. 

Traigama el diario. 

Don Antonio nos pago ayer. 

Le he dado la carta. 

\I e ha traido el diario? 


He came to see me. 

I wish to speak to him. 
i have not been able to pay them 
that amount. 

I am waiting for them. 

Give him this letter. 

Bring me the journal (day book). 
Mr. Anthony paid us yesterday. 

I have given him the letter. 

Have you brought me the journal ? 


When a dative and an accusative case come together, the 
dative precedes the accusative, if the latter is of the third 
person; if the accusative case is of the first or second person, 
it precedes the dative. 


dQuien le dio ese reloj?—Mi padre 
me lo did. 

<iLes leyo ella la carta que recibio 
ayer? —Si, senor, nos la leyo. 

Recibio usted la carta que le 
envie esta manana? —El mucha- 
cho acaba de entreg&r mela. 

^No te le has presentado? 


Who gave you that watch? — My 
father gave it to me. 

Did she read to you the letter she 
received yesterday? — Yes, sir, 
she read it to us. 

Did you receive the letter I sent 
you this morning? — The boy has 
just delivered it to me. 

Have you not presented yourself 
to him? 


The dative case of all personal pronouns of the third 
person, and of usted , when combined with an accusative case, 
takes the form se. 


dQuien le dioesereloj a su hija? — 
Yo se lo di. 

^Les enseno usted esta muestra 4 
sus amigos? —Si, senor; ayer se 
la mostre. 


Who gave your daughter that 
watch? —I gave it to her. 

Did you show your friends this 
sample? —Yes, sir, I showed it 
to them yesterday. 


54. Place of Adjectives. — In the majority of cases, an 
adjective is placed after the substantive it modifies. The 
same rule applies to all adjectival phrases. 





§17 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


31 


Don Juan es un hombre rico. 

Segun la opinion de autoridades 
inuy competences, un hom¬ 
bre honrado no puede hacerse 
millonario. 


Mr. John is a rich man. 

According to the opinion of very 
competent authorities, an honest 
man cannot become a million¬ 
aire. 


There are adjectives, however, that must always precede 
the substantive. Among these may be mentioned the arti¬ 
cles, and the adjectives este, this; ese, that; aquel, yonder. 


AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES 


55. An adjective referring to several substantives is 
placed in the plural form. If the substantives are of the 
same gender, the adjective should agree with them; if they 
are of different genders, the masculine form of the adjec¬ 
tive should preferably be employed. 


En esta poblacion hay un teatro 
y un hotel muy buenos. 

Esta senora y su hija son espa- 
nolas. 

La casa y el almacen de mi padre 
est&n sltuados en la misma 
cuadra. 


There are in this town a very good 
theater and a very good hotel. 
This lady and her daughter are 
Spanish. 

My father’s house and store are 
situated on the same block. 


56. The masculine pronouns nosotros, vosotros , ellos 
require the masculine form of the adjective. Thus, a 
woman, speaking for herself and other persons, among 
whom one or more men are included, should say (see 
Art. 15), 

Nosotros somos sur-americanos I We are South American. 

(not, sur-americanas). 

57. As the inflection of adjectives for gender and number 
is one of the most important grammatical differences 
between English and Spanish, the student should constantly 
bear in mind that adjectives agree in gender and number with 
the substantives they modify. 





32 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


3 

ea 

33 


3 

8 

a 

'Cti 

3 

.2 

3 

3 

3 

3 

>> 

3 

3 

3 

s- 

2 

3 

u 

X 

a 

X 

“E 

X 

3 

3 

2 

3 

3 

33 

3 

35 

33 

33 

3 

33 


•r «> •» 


-9 


2 ea 


^3 

3 


33 .cj 33 


*d <u a> 

£•3 3 

5 3 3 

33 33 


a | s 

2 ~ JS 

•5 - 0 "9 

2 ta 2 

^ x ^ 


a a 


X 

3 

33 


-3 3 


3 .2 .2 

>> 33 33 

2 3 3 

^3 3 3 


<D su .2 3 


3 .2 

2 3 

1X3 33 


a '£ 


«: s; 


„ 4 I 

■s » ■& 

$ $ <3 


* 


* 


9(ii}V3ipu] aatpunfqns 


x 

3 

35 


$ 
















Infinitive , tener; participle , tenido; gerund, teniendo 


§17 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


ellos 

tienen 

tuvieron 

tendran 

tendrlan 

tenlan 

tengan 

f tuvieran 

1 tuviesen 

tuvieren 

tengan 

vosotros 

tennis 

tuvisteis 

tendreis 

tendrlais 

tenlais 

tengais 

f tuvierais 

i tuvieseis 

tuviereis 

tened 

nosotros 

tenemos 

tuvimos 

tendremos 

tendriamos 

tenlamos 

tengamos 

[ .tuvieramos 

l tuviesemos 

tuvieremos 

tengamos 

3 

tiene 

tuvo 

tendra 

tendria 

tenia 

tenga 

f tnviera 

L tuviese 

tuviere 

tenga 

2 

tienes 

tuviste 

tendras 

tendrlas 

tenlas 

tengas 

f tuvieras 

l tuvieses 

tuvieres 

ten 

o 

ten go 

tuve 

tendre 

tendria 

tenia 

tenga 

f tuviera 

l tuviese 

tuviere 


' Present .... 

^ Preterit .... 

5 Future .... 

[§ Postpreterit . . 

_ Copreterit . . . 

% 

f Present .... 

| 

[ Preterit .... 
to 

Hypothetic . 

Imperative . 


33 


















CONJUGATION OP REGULAR VERBS: FIRST CONJUGATION 


34 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§17 


















Infinitive, vender; participle , vendiclo; gerund, vendiendo 


17 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


X 

•pH 

03 

•— 

© 

02 

’© 

03 

•H 

cS 

0 ) 

•H 

X 

•pH 

X 

•H 

Og 

0 ! 

•H 

© 

05 

0 ! 

•pH 

© 

o 

X 

rH 


eg 

*flg 

© 

© 

Ph 

nn 

a 

CD 

>r a 

d 

© 

T 3 

a 

© 

X) 

d 

xi 

a 

CD 

a 

CD 

•pH 

a 

•pH 

Td 

a 

© 

•H 

Td 


« © 


g d 

u $ 

© Td 

'd a 


d 

eg 


x 

o 


S 2 £ 

S fi ® ,2 ; 




0) 

O 

s 

eg 

T) 


x 05 

o o 

d l "‘ 

5 © 

Sh !» 

*© •© 


K r& Cw 

*0 g t| 03 

•H d H iH 

^ ® 

d " Td d 


Cg © 


© 

/ 

© 


x 

eg x 


eg 


XI 


© 

Td 


X 

eg 

h 

© 


»© 


•S *2 © 


* ^ 

cb © 


© 

© 


d 

© 


X 3 .H .H W 

a -a -a # 


cc 

o 

s 


05 

© 

u 

© 


X> «H .H 


50 ;o ds <o •§, 

Js. A r S _Q> .0) 

^ d, k, o, <j 

an.i'ivjipuj sMpttnfqns 


d 

eg 

X 


-d 

© 

Td 

a 


05 

o 

d 

eg 

Xl 

a 


.H ^ 

#rH <—! 


I 


35 














86 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§17 


fc 

o 

M 

H 

◄ 

0 

t3 

fe 

O 

o 

Q 

« 

M 

H 


. 02 

k CQ 
M 

S W 


CQ 

H 


« 

◄ 

hi 

P 

C5 

W 

« 

Pm 

0 

fc 

O 

H 

◄ 

if 

P 

►a 

fc 

O 

o 


o 

'd 

d 

o> 


a 

~tf 


0 

'd 


■"S' 




Xil 

O 

0) 

permiten 

permitieron 

permitiran 

permitirian 

permitian 

permitan 

f permitieran 

Lpermitlesen 

permitieren 

permitan 

vosotros 

permitis 

permitisteis 

permitireis 

permitiriais 

permitiais 

permitais 

f permitierals 

Ipermitieseis 

permitiereis 

permitid 

nosotros 

permitlmos 

permitimos 

permitlremos 

permitiriamos 

permitiamos 

permitamos 

f permitieramos 
l permitiesemos 

permitieremos 

permitamos 


permite 

permitio 

permitira 

permitiria 

permitia 

permita 

f permitiera 
Ipermitiese 

permitiere 

permita 

2 

permites 

permitiste 

permitiras 

permitirias 

permitias 

permitas 

f permitieras 
ipermitieses 

permitieres 

permite 

yo 

permito 

permit! 

permitire 

permitiria 

permitia 

permita 

f permitiera 

Ipermitiese 

permitiere 


Present . . 

Preterit . . 

.3 Future . . 

^8 Postpreterit. 

Copreterit . 

£ 

V5 f Present . . 

8 i 

& l Preterit . . 

Hypothetic . . . 

Imperative . . . 
















CONJUGATION OF 8ER 


17 SPANISH GRAMMAR 



37 















ESTAR 


38 


SPANISH GRAMMAR §17 


w 

hi 

PQ 

< 


P 

o 

o 

H 

h! 

O 

P 


£ 

O 

u 



















SPANISH GRAMMAR 

(PART 3) 


THE SUBSTANTIVE 


CLASSES OF NOUNS 


CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO MEANING AND USE 

1. With regard to their meaning and use, nouns are 
divided into three main classes; namely: proper nouns 
(nombres propios ), common nouns (nombres apelativos) , and 
sumonies ( ape11idos ). 

2. A proper noun is a noun that has no meaning by 
itself, and can be arbitrarily assigned to any individual 
thing* of a class, in order to distinguish it from other things 
of the same class. 


Juan, John 
Pedro, Peter 
Maria, Mary 


Filadelfia, Philadelphia 
Misisipi, Mississippi 
Atlantico, Atlantic 


3. A common noun is a noun that has a meaning by 
itself, and is therefore capable of being defined. 


hombre, man 
mesa, table 
historia, history 
quimica, chemistry 


virtud, virtue 
quinina, quinine 
- jueves, Thursday 
julio, July 


*The word thing is here, as in other similar cases, used in its most 
general signification to denote whatever can bethought of: it includes, 
therefore," persons, animals, and abstract objects of thought (as 
beauty, virtue), no less than lifeless material beings. 

For notice of copyright , see page imme ately following the title page 

218 








2 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


18 


4. A surname, or family name, is a noun used as the 
name of a family, and added to the baptismal name of every 
member of the family. 

Cervera I Castro I Diaz 

Quesada | Gdmez | Calderdn 


CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO FORM 

5. With regard to their form, nouns are divided into four 
classes; namely: primitive nouns (nombres primitivos ), 
derived nouns (nombres derivados ), compound nouns (nombres 
compuestos ), and simple nouns (nombres simples). 

It may be well to remark that this classification applies 
not only to nouns, but to all classes of words; that is, all 
words are either primitive or derived, simple or compound. 


6. A primitive noun is a noun not obtained, or formed, 
from another word used in the language. 


Juan, John 
dia, day 
oro, gold 


revolucion, revolution 
republica, republic 
libertad, liberty 


7. A derived noun is one which is derived— that is, 
formed —from another word used in the language. Derived 
words are generally formed by the addition of some special 
endings to primitive words. 


arboleda, grove— derived from arbol, tree 
hermosura, beauty— derived from hermoso, beautiful 
exactitud, exactness— derived from exacto, exact 
comedor, dining room— derived from comer, to eat 
comprador, buyer— derived from comprar, to buy 


A derived word is also called a derivative. 

A word from which another is derived is called the 
primitive of the latter word. 

8. A compound noun is a noun consisting of two or 
more Spanish words. Nouns formed by the combination of 
foreign words are not treated as compound. Common com¬ 
pound nouns are generally written as one word; proper 
compound nouns, as two words. 




§18 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


3 


mondadientes, toothpick (literally, clean teeth) —compound of the 
imperative monda, clean , and the noun dientes, teeth. 

sinrazon, injustice (literally, without reason) —compound of the prep¬ 
osition sin, without, and the noun razon, reason. 

hazmerreir, laughing stock (literally, make me laugh)— compound of 
the imperative liaz, make, the pronoun me, me, and the verb relr, 
to laugh. 

Nueva-York, New York — compound of the adjective nueva, 
new, and the proper noun York. 

Puerto-Rico, Porto Rico (literally, Rich Port) —compound of the 
noun puerto, port, and the adjective rlco, rich. 

0. A simple noun is a noun that is not compound. 

prerrogativa, prerogative I padre, father 

constancia, constancy | ciudad, city 


COLLECTIVE NOUNS 

10. Definition. —A collective noun is a noun that 
serves as the name of a group of individuals of the same 
kind, considered as forming a class or whole, and there¬ 
fore referred to as one object. 

gente, people I el publico, the public -congreso, congress 

clero, clergy \ populacho, poptilace ejercito, army 


11. Important Syntactic Difference Between 
Spanish and English Collective Nouns. —In Spanish, 
a collective noun is, in general, treated as a singular noun, 
and therefore verbs and adjectives referring to it are put in 
the singular form. This rule applies whether the action or 
fact denoted by the verb, or the condition denoted by the 
adjective, applies to the body, as a whole, of which the col¬ 
lective noun is the name, or separately to every one of its 
individuals. In the latter case, the collective noun is in 
English treated as a plural noun, requiring the plural form 
of the verb. 


El clero de los Estados Unidos 
es mas tolerante que el de 
Europa. 

Mucha gente cree que el comer- 
cio conduce a la degradacion 
moral. 


The clergy of the United States 
are more tolerant than the 
clergy of Europe. 

Many people think that com¬ 
merce leads to moral degrada¬ 
tion. 





4 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§18 


It would not be permissible to say son and tolerante s in the 
first example, nor mucha s and creew in the second. 

Some special constructions in which the foregoing rule is 
deviated from will be fully treated in another place. 


AUGMENTATIVE NOUNS 

12. Definition. —An augmentative noun, in the 
strict sense of the term, is a noun derived from another by 
the addition of an ending indicating large size or unusually 
conspicuous characteristic properties. Such nouns are often 
rendered by the respective English equivalents of the primi¬ 
tives from which they are derived, preceded by large , big , or 
great; sometimes, by special English nouns. The most 
common augmentative endings are -6n and -azo (-ona and 
-aza for the feminine). 


hombre, man: 
libro, book: 
silla, chair: 
ladron, thief: 

ignorante, ignorant person: 
plcaro, rascal: 


hombron, large man 
librazo, large book 

sillon, easy chair (literally, large chair ) 
ladronazo, great or cunning thief 
ignorantazo, ignoranton, ignoramus 
picaron, great rascal 


13. Rules for the Addition of Endings.— It will be 
observed that in hombro n, the noun hombre is modified by 
omitting its last vowel before the ending -6n is added; while in 
ladronsL^o , the ending -azo is added without any modification 
in the form of the primitive ladron (except the accent mark, 
as the only vowel emphasized in the derived word is the a of 
the added ending). These are special cases of the fol¬ 
lowing important general 

Rule. — When an eriding beginning with a vowel is to be 
added to a word for the formation of a derivative, the 
primitive , if it ends in a vowel , loses that vowel; otherwise, 
its form remains unaltered. 


Endings beginning with a consonant do not require any 
alteration of form in the primitive word before adding. If, 
however, an ending beginning with e or i is to be added to a 
word whose last letter is c or z, the final c is changed to qu , 



18 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


5 


and the final z to c. Thus, the plural of vez, time , is z^ces, 
and that of frac, dress coat , is fraques. The changing of 
final z into c before e or i is somewhat arbitrary, the only 
reason for it being that it is not customary to write z before 
either of these vowels. The changing of final c into qu , 
however, is necessary in order to preserve the pronunciation 
of the original word. Thus, c in frac is pronounced like 
English k , and so is qu in fraques; whereas, if / races were 
written as the plural of frac , it would sound like the plural 
of fraz. 

For similar prosodic reasons, some endings added afters 
or gu require a change in the form of the word to which 
they are affixed. Thus, the first person plural of the impera¬ 
tive of averiguar, to inquire , is written averiguemos; were 
not the u marked with a dieresis, it would be silent, and the 
imperative would not sound as if formed regularly; for the 
first person plural of the imperative of regular verbs ending 
in -ar is formed so that the sound of the ending -ar is 
replaced by that of -emos, as in «emos from ameer, to love. 
Likewise, the first person plural of the imperative of 
pagar, to pay , is written paguemos; a u is introduced after 
the g, as otherwise this letter would have the sound of 
Spanish /, which is not the sound it has in the infinitive of 
the verb. 

These slight modifications introduced for the purpose of 
preserving the sounds of certain letters are not deemed 
irregularities. 

14. Other Meanings of Augmentative Endings. 
An augmentative ending sometimes conveys the idea of gro¬ 
tesqueness, contemptibleness, or coarseness, either with or 
without the implication of large size or uncommonly con¬ 
spicuous features. This is often true of the endings -6n, -azo, 
and nearly always of the ending -ote (feminine, -ota) — the 
other common augmentative termination. 

una soltera, an unmarried woman: una solterona, an old maid 
una mujer, a woman: una mujerona, a coarse , big 

woman 

su bocaza, his big mouth 


su boca, his mouth: 


6 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§18 


un negro, a negro: un negrazo, a big nigger 

un hombre, a man: un hombrote, a big fellow 

una palabra, a word: una palabrota, a loud-sounding but undigni¬ 
fied or vulgar word 


15. Remarks on Augmentative Nouns.— With few 
exceptions, the use of augmentative nouns is restricted to 
familiar conversation and light literature. The same 
remark applies to diminutive nouns, soon to be treated. 

There are other augmentative endings besides those 
considered in Arts. 12 and 14; but the nouns formed 
with them have meanings that in the majority of cases 
cannot be ascertained by inspection, even if one knows the 
significations of the primitive nouns from which they are 
formed. The meanings of such augmentatives must be 
independently learned, and it is therefore useless to enumer¬ 
ate the endings entering into their formation. 

The student’s attention is called to the fact that, although 
nearly all augmentative nouns end in - 6n , -azo, or - ote , it is 
not conversely true that all nouns having these endings are 
augmentatives, or even derived nouns at all. The following 
primitive nouns will serve as examples: 


carbon, coal 
jamon, ham 
leccion, lesson 


ladron, thief 
abrazo, embrace 
taza, cup 


azote, lash 
bellota, acorn 
derrota, defeat 


DIMINUTIVE NOUNS 

16. Definition. — A diminutive noun, in the strict 
sense of the term, is a noun derived from another by the 
addition of an ending indicating small size. Such nouns can 
usually be rendered by prefixing little or small to the respect¬ 
ive English equivalents of the Spanish nouns from which 
they are formed. By an extension of meaning, diminutive 
nouns are employed sometimes as terms of endearment, some¬ 
times as contemptuous terms. 

17. Diminutive Endings.— The following are the 
principal diminutive endings; the notation -a indicates that 
the feminine is formed by replacing the last vowel in the 
ending with a: 





18 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


7 


-cillo,-a 

-cito,-a 

-ecillo,-a 

-ecito,-a 


-ico,-a 

-illo,-a 

-ito,-a 


In general, -ito is added to names of things to denote 
smallness, and to those of persons and animals either to 
denote smallness or tender age, or as a mark of affection 
or sympathy; -illo is affectionately applied to animals and 
children, and contemptuously to grown people and lifeless 
things; -cito and -cillo take the place of -ito and -illo, respect¬ 
ively, when the primitive noun ends in d , n, r , e , or in an 
accented vowel. 

These rules cover the most common cases, although they 
are by no means absolute. The correct use of both aug¬ 
mentative and diminutive endings must be learned by 
practice. 

The following are examples of diminutive nouns: 


cuarto, room: 
casa, house: 
lapiz, pencil: 
nino, child: 
muchacho, boy: 
muchacha, girl: 
hermano, brother: 
amigo, friend: 
mujer, woman: 
hombre, man: 
leccion, lesson: 
joven, young man: 
madre, mother: 
ciudad, city: 
papa, papa: 
pajaro, bird: 
chico,-a, young one: 
maestro, teacher: 
gorrion,. sparrow: 
actor, actor: 
indio, Indian: 
pez, fish: 


cuartito, cuartieo, small room 
casita, small house 
lapicito, small pencil (see Art. 13) 
ninito, little child 
muchachito, little boy 
muchachita, little girl 
hermanito, little brother 
amiguito, little friend (see Art. 13) 
miljercita, little woman 
hombreeito, little man 
leccioneita, short lesson 
jovencito, very young man 
madrecita, mother dear 
ciudadcita, pretty little city 
papacito, papa dear 
pajarillo, little bird , sweet little bird 
chiquillo,-a, little one (see Art. 13) 
maestrillo, teacher of no account 
gorrioncillo, dear little sparrow 
aetorcillo, actor of no account 
indiecito, little Indian 
pececito, peceeillo, pretty little fish 


The diminutives todito , nadx ta, poquxto , of t.oclo, all; 
nada, nothing , and poco, little , respectively, are used as 



8 SPANISH GRAMMAR §18 


emphatic familiar terms, although they have practically the 
same meanings as the corresponding primitives. 


18. Other diminutive endings are: ececito,-a , ezuelo,-a, 
huelo,-a, - uelo,-a , ztielo,-a, which sometimes indicate contempt¬ 
ibleness, and at other times smallness accompanied by some 
quality worthy of admiration, such as beauty, gracefulness, 
roguishness, etc.; -aco,-a, - ejo,-a , -ucho,-a, uzo,-a , which imply 
insignificance, and often smallness besides; - ote , which is 
added to a few nouns with no other meaning than that of 
small size; and - ete,-a , which is often depreciative, although 
in a few cases it simply indicates smallness. Of these, 
-huelo and -uelo are equivalent, but the former is added to 
nouns ending in a non-diphthongal two-vowel combination. 


pie, foot: 
hoyo, hole: 
arroyo, brook: 
ojos, eyes: 

autor, author: 
doctor, doctor: 
aldea, village: 
animal, animal: 
libro, book: 
casa, house: 
gente, people: 
isla, island: 
mozo, young man: 
ala, wing: 
historia, history: 
opera, opera: 


piececito, pretty little foot 
hoyuelo, dimple (literally, little hole ) 
arroyuelo, brooklet 

ojuelos, roguish, or tempting , or treacherous 
little eyes 

autorzuelo, author of no importance 
doctorzuelo, doctor of little account 
aldehuela, obscure , insignificant village 
animalejo, small animal (in contempt) 
librejo, libraco, not-good-for-much book 
casuclia, shanty 

gentuza, people of no account , nobodies 
islote, islet 

mocete, insignificant young fellow 
aleta, fin 

historicta, short story 
opereta, operetta 


It will be observed that -ote is both an augmentative and a 
diminutive ending. 

19. Pet Names.—Diminutive endings —mainly -ito,-a s 
and -cito^-a — are added to names of persons in order to 
form pet names. Such pet names, when applied to children, 
naturally convey the idea of smallness or tender age; other¬ 
wise, they are used as terms of endearment, and very often 
simply as terms of familiarity or intimacy, as pet names are 
in English. When the proper name to which a diminutive 


§-18 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


9 


termination is added ends in s, and is not accented on the last 
syllable, the s is transposed and added to that termination. 


Juan, John: 

Ana, Anna: 
Carlos, Charles: 
Ines,' Agnes: 
Antonio, Anthony: 
Dolores: 

Mercedes: 

Carmen.: 


Juanito, Johnnie 
Anita, Annie 
Carlitos, Charley 
Inesita, Aggie 

Antonito (somewhat irregular), Tony 
Dolor!tas, Dolorcitas 
Merceditas 
Carmencita 


Unlike English pet names, the Spanish diminutives applied 
to women are exclusively restricted to very familiar language, 
and never take the place of true names. A woman would 
never sign her name Carmencita, Anita, or Doloritas, unless 
writing to a near relative or an intimate friend; nor would 
she be addressed by a diminutive name except by those with 
whom she were on very familiar terms. 

All pet names, whether formed by means of diminutive 
endings or not, are usually, though perhaps improperly, 
classed as diminutives. Some of them are very irregularly 
derived, while others are not derived at all, being in reality 
primitive nouns. The following are examples: 

Jose, Joseph: Pepe, Chepe, Joe 

Francisco, Francis: Pacho, Frank 
Francisca, Frances: Pacha, Frankie , Fannie 
Concepckm: Concha 

Josef a: Chepa, Pepa 

These pet names carry no other implication than that of 
familiarity. By the addition of diminutive endings, they 
become terms of affection: Pachita , Pepita , Chepito. 

20. Ending Combinations. —A diminutive or an aug¬ 
mentative noun is sometimes treated as a primitive, from 
which another diminutive or augmentative noun is formed. 
If the endings have the same meaning, their combination has 
a cumulative effect; otherwise, the first ending modifies the 
primitive, and the second modifies the word derived from 
the primitive by the addition of the first. The combined 


10 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§18 


endings may be both augmentative, both diminutive, or one 
augmentative and one diminutive. The following combina¬ 
tions will serve as examples: 

-ON,-AZO 

un hombronazo, a very big fellow (see Art. 14) 
una solteronaza, a big old maid (see Art. 14) 

-ito.-ico 

toditico, everything (still more emphatic than todito , 

Art. 17) 

un poquitico, a very little , a little bit (see Art. 17) 
-cillo,-uelo 

un autorcilluelo, a very insignificant author 
-on,-cito 

hipocrita, hypocrite: tu, hipocritoncito, you great little 
hypocrite (said to a child, scoldingly) 


NUMBER IN NOUNS 


SIMPLE NOUNS 

21. Simple Common Nouns.— The plural of simple 
common nouns is formed from the singular by the following 
rules: 


Rule I. — Nouns that in the singular end in a non-emphatic 
vowel or in a7i emphatic -e, add -s. 


hombre, man: 
casa, house: 
mano, hand: 
tribu, tribe: 
pie, foot: 

pagare, promissory order: 
corse, corset: 
fe, faith: 


hombres, men 
casas, houses 
manos, hands 
tribus, tribes 
pies, feet 

pagares, promissory orders 
corses, corsets 
fes, faiths 


Exceptions. — The one-syllable names of letters of the 
alphabet form the plural by adding es. 

una be, one b: dos bees, two b’s 
una te, one t: dos tees, two t’s 


The plural /<?es of fe, faith , and others formed by adding 
-es to nouns ending in an emphatic e, are sometimes met with. 




§18 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


11 


The best usage, however, sanctions the formation of the 
plural of all such nouns according to the general rule. 

Rule II. —Nouns that in the singular end in a consonant or 
in an accented vowel other than e, add -es. 


martir, martyr: 
joven, young man: 
baul, trunk: 
ciudad, city: 
frac, dress coat: 
alferez, lieutenant: 
mes, month: 
reves, disaster: 
pacha, baja, pasha: 
rey, king: 
rubi, ruby: 
rondo, rondeau: 
bambu, bamboo: 


martires, martyrs 
jovenes, young men 
baules, trunks 
ciudades, cities 

fraques, dress coats (see Art. 13) 
alfereces, lieutenants (see Art. 13) 
meses, months 
reveses, disasters 
pachaes, bajaes, pashas 
reyes, kings 
rubies, rubies 
rondoes, rondeaus 
bambues, bamboos 


Exceptions. — 1. The following nouns ending in -d and-6 
form the plural by adding -s: 

mama, mama: mamds 

papa, papa: papas 

sofa, sofa: sofds 

chaco, military cap: chacos 

chap 6, four-handed billiard game: chapos 

Some good authorities form the plural of nouns ending in 
-6 or -u, and that of the nouns bisturi, surgeon's knife , and 
zaquizami, garret, by adding - 5 : rondd s, bambu s, bisturfe , etc. 
The plural of maravedi—tXxe. name of a very small Spanish 
coin —is formed in any of the three following manners: 
maravedivs, maravediH, maravedises. 

2. Nouns ending in -s or -x and not accented on the last 
syllable, and a few terms taken from the Latin, have the 
same form for both numbers. 


un jueves, one Thursday: dos jueves, two Thursdays 

el parentesis, the parenthesis: los parentesis, the parentheses 
el fenix, the phoenix: ' los fenix, the phoenixes 

el ultimatum, the ultimatum: los ultimatum, the ultimatums 
el deficit, the deficit: los deficit, the deficits 

However, the plural of album, album , is albumes. 


12 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§18 


3. The plural of lord, lord, is lores. 

4. Caracter, character, has the irregularly-accented 
plural caracteres (emphasis on the first e). The plurals 
regimenes and crateres of regimen, regime, and crater, 
crater, are also common, although the regular forms are 
preferable. 

22. Surnames. — Surnames ending in -z and not accented 
on the last syllable have the same form for both numbers; 
all others follow the rules applying to common nouns. 

el senor Perez, Mr. Perez: los senqres Perez, Messrs. Perez 

la senorita Ruiz, Miss Ruiz: las senoritas Ruices, the Misses Ruiz 

el senor Parra, Mr. Parra: los senores Parras, Messrs. Parra 

Maria Herran, Mary Herran: las Herranes, the PIerran girls 
los Herranes, the Herran family 
lots Henaos, the Henao family 

23. With few exceptions, foreign surnames have the 
same form in the plural as in the singular. 

los Washington, los Franklin, los Bismarck 

Indeed, some good authorities apply this rule to Spanish 
surnames also. 


las senoritas Parra (not, Parras) 

las Herran, los Henao (not, Herranes, Henaos ) 

The best usage, however, agrees with the general rule 
given in Art. 22. 

24. Proper Nouns. —Proper nouns are only occasion¬ 
ally used in the plural, and, when-so used, follow the rules 
applying to common simple nouns. 


En esa familia hay muchos 
Juanes. 

En los Estados Unidos hay mu¬ 
chos Guillermos , y en Irlanda 
muchos Migueles. 

El istmo de Panama une las dos 
Americas. 


There are many Johns in that 
family. 

In the United States there are 
many Williams, and in Ireland, 
many Michaels. 

The Isthmus of Panama joins the 
two Americas. 


Proper nouns that by an extension of meaning are con¬ 
verted into common nouns, follow Rules I and II, Art. 21. 



18 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


13 


Los Homero# (poetas como Ho- 
mero) han sido muy raros en el 
mundo. 

Hoy he vendido veinte Cesare s y 
quince Salustio® (veinte ejem- 
plares de las obras de Cesar, 
y quince de las de Salustio) . 


Homers (poets like Homer) have 
been very rare in the world. 

I have sold today twenty Caesars 
and fifteen Sallusts (twenty 
copies of Caesar’s works, and 
fifteen of Sallust’s). 


COMPOUND NOUNS 

25. Compound nouns form their plural according to the 
following rules: 

Rule I. — Compounds formed by the combination of two sub¬ 
stantives, or of a substantive and an adjective, form the plural 
by the modification of both component words , according to the 
miles governing the plural of simple nouns (which apply to 
adjectives as well). 

la bocacalle, the street intersection: las bocascalles, the street inter¬ 
sections 

el ricohombre, the grandee: los ricoshombres, the grandees 

Exceptions. — The following compound nouns form the 
plural by adding s to the second component element: 

bocamanga, wristband: bocamangas 

montepio, pawn shop: montepios 

padrenuestro, paternoster: padrenuestros 
vanagloria, boast: vanaglorias 

Rule II. — All other compound nouns form the plural as if 
they were simple nouns , and therefore follow the rules laid 
down in Art. 21. 

sordomudo , deaf mute: sordomudoS 

hazmerreir, laughing stock: hazmerreires 

pasatiempo, pastime: pasatiempos 

el mondadientes, the toothpick: los mondadientes (Art. 21, Rule 

II, Exception 2) 

Exceptions. — In the following compound nouns, only 
the first element is altered for the formation Of the plural: 

cualquiera, any one: cualesquiera, any ones 

quienquiera, any person: quienesquiera, any persons 

hijodalgo, nobleman: hijosdalgo, noblemen 

hijadalgo, noblewoman: hijasdalgo, noblewomen 




14 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


18 


NOUNS USED IN THE PLURAL ONLY 

26. The following nouns, and others of less importance, 
are used in the plural number only: 


los aborigenes, the aborigines 
los adentros (de uno), {one's) 
inner self 

los afueras, the outskirts 
las albricias, the reward 
los alrededores,' the environs 
los Alpes, the Alps 
los anales, the annals 
las andas {a portable platform for 
carrying images ) 
los Andes, the Andes 
los andurriales, the byways 
las Antillas, the West Indies 
los antipodas, the antipodes 
los anicos, the bits, the smithereens 
las Azores, the Azores 
los bienes, the property 
los calzoncillos, the drawers {un¬ 
derclothing) 
los celos, the jealousy 
los comicios, the comitia 
las cortes, the cortes {Spanish 
parliament) 


las efemerides, the ephemeris 
las enaguas, the underskirt 
los enseres, the chattels 
los esponsales, the betrothal 
las esposas, the handcuffs 
las exequias, the obsequies 
las Filipinas, the Philippines 
las gafas, the eye glasses 
los grillos, the fetters 
las honras, the obsequies 
las Infulas, the airs {haughtiness) 
las letras, literature , belles lettres 
las mientes, the mind 
los modales, the manners 
las nupcias, the nuptials 
las partes, the parts {accomplish¬ 
ments) 

las pinzas, the nippers 
los Pirineos, the Pyrenees 
las tenazas, the tongs 
las tijeras, the scissors 
las tinieblas, the darkness 
los viveres, the provisions 


The singular form enagua is frequently heard, especially in 
Spain and Cuba, but is not sanctioned by good usage. 

With reference to one of the antipodes, the singular anti- 
poda is correct. 

The poets often say el Ande, el Alpe , la tiniebla , and with 
reference to one of the West Indian islands, la Antilla. 


27. The following nouns may be properly used as either 
singular or plural, although the plural form is preferable: 

el calzon, los calzones, the breeches 
el pantalon, los pantalones, the trousers 
el funeral, los funerales, the funeral 

28. Geographical names having a plural form but deno¬ 
ting a single object, are used as singular nouns. 



§18 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


15 


Buenos-Aires es la capital de la 
Republica Argentina. 

El Amazonas es el rio m&s 
caudaloso del mundo. 


Buenos Ayres is the capital of the 
Argentine Republic. 

The Amazon is the largest river 
in the word. 


It would not be permissible to say son in the first example, 
nor el and son in the second. 


GENDER OF SUBSTANTIVES AND OF SUBSTAN¬ 
TIVE PHRASES 


GENDER OF SUBSTANTIVES ACCORDING TO SEX 

29. General Rule. — All substantives denoting individuals 
of the male sex are masculine; those denoting individuals of the 
female sex are feminine. 


el caballo, the horse 
la yegua, the mare 
el hombre, the man 
la mujer, the woman 
el presidente, the president 
el esposo, the husband 


la esposa, the wife 
el rey, the king 
la reina, the queen 
el interprete, the man interpreter 
la interprete, the woman inter¬ 
preter 


In the following examples, the gender is plainly indicated 
by the form of the adjectives: 

Jose es casado. 

Josefina es casada. 

El hombre A\]o. “ Yo soycatolico, ” 
y la mujer , "Yo soy raahome- 
tana. ” 

^'Es usted espanola, sehorita? — 

Si, sehor; ^y usted tambien es 

espanol ? 

In this rule are included the names of beings that through 
ignorance or fancy are or have been represented as belonging 
to either sex. 


Joseph is married. 

Josephine is married. 

The man said, “I am Catholic,” 
and the woman, "I am Moham¬ 
medan.” 

Are you Spanish, miss? —Yes, sir; 
and are you also Spanish? 


el angel, the angel 
el dios, the god 
la diosa, the goddess 


el diablo, the devil 
el centauro, the centaur 
la ninfa, the nymph 








16 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§18 


30. Gender Forms.— Many nouns denoting persons or 
animals have special endings to indicate sex. In other cases, 
sex is indicated by independent words. The masculine form 
is customarily treated as the fundamental form of all nouns, 
and is used as a general term to include both males and 
females, when no distinction of sex is necessary. Thus, 
el liombre, like its English equivalent man, embraces all 
mankind, both men and women; and with reference to kings 
in general, the masculine form los reyes denotes both kings 
— reyes— and queens — reinas. 

With regard to gender forms indicating sex, the following 
statements may be made: 

1. Many nouns ending in - o, -a7ite, - ente, -ete, -ole, and those 
ending in a consonant (y excepted) and accented on the last 
syllable, form the feminine by adding -a (see Art. 13). 


el criado, the male servant: 
el amigo, the male friend: 
el perro, the dog: 
el sobrino, the nephew: 
el hermano, the brother: 
el hijo, the son: 
el elefante, the elephant: 
el hotentote, the Hottentot: 
el pariente, the relative: 
el senor, the gentleman: 
el marques, the marquis: 
el bailarin, the dancer: 
el zagal, the shepherd: 
el capitan, the captain: 


la criada, the female servant 
la amiga, the female triend 
la perra, the she-dog 
la sobrina, the niece 
la hermana, the sister 
la hija, the daughter 
la elefanta, the female elephant 
la hotentota, the Hottentot woman 
la parienta, the woman relative 
la senora, the lady 
la marquesa, the marchioness 
la bailarina, the woman dancer 
la zagala, the shepherdess 
la capitana, the woman captain 


The feminine of liijodalgo, nobleman, is liijadalgo. The 
nouns testigo, witness; juez, judge; miembro, member, and 
reo, culprit, have the same form for the two genders. 

el juez, la juez el miembro, la miembro 

el testigo, la testigo el reo, la reo 


Many proper nouns of women are formed after the 
same rule. 


Francisco, Francis: Francisca, Francess 
Juan, John: Juana, Joan, Jane 

Rafael, Jesus: Rafaela, Jesusa 



18 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


17 


2. Most all nouns in -a, -e (except those in -ante, -ente), 
and those ending in a consonant and not accented on the 
last syllable, have the same form for the two genders. 


el patriota, the man patriot: 
el contabilista, the accountant: 
el interprete, the interpreter: 
el complice, the accomplice: 
el tigre, the tiger: 
el martir, the martyr: 
el joven, the young man: 


la patriota, the woman patriot 
la contabilista, the woman accountant 
la interprete, the woman interpreter 
la complice, the woman accomplice 
la tigre, the tigress 
la martir, the woman martyr 
la joven, the young woman 


The following are some of the exceptions to this rule: 


el huesped, the boarder: la huespeda, the woman boarder 
el monje, the monk: la tnonja, the nun 

el sastre, the tailor: la sastra, the woman tailor 


3. The following nouns form the feminine by adding -esa: 


el abad, the abbot: 
el alcaide, the warden: 
el alcalde, the mayor: 
el baron, the baron: 
el conde, the count: 
el duque, the duke: 


la abadesa, the abbess 
la alcaidesa, the warden's wife 
la alcaidesa, the mayor's wife 
la baronesa, the baroness 
la condesa, the countess 
la duquesa, the duchess 


It will be observed that a woman assumes her husband’s 
title of office. So, too, a general’s wife is called generala. 
This, however, is not always permissible in serious style. 

4. The following add -isa: 


el diacono, the deacon: 
el poeta, the poet: 
el profeta, the prophet: 
el sacerdote, the priest: 


la diaconisa, the deaconess 
la poet isa, the poetess 
la profetisa, the prophetess 
la sacerdotisa, the priestess 


5. The following are peculiar forms not included in any 
of the foregoing paragraphs: 


el actor, the actor: 
el cantor, the singer: 
el emperador, the emperor: 
el gallo, the cock: 
el heroe, the hero: 
el rey, the king: 
el principe, the prince: 


la actriz, the actress 
la cantatriz, the woman singer 
la emperatriz, the empress 
la gallina, the hen 
la heroina, the heroine 
la reina, the queen 
la princesa, the princess 


6 . Surnames do not change to indicate sex. 


18 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§18 


el senor Cervera, Mr. Cervera: la senora Cervera, Mrs. Cervera 
Pedro Henao, Peter Henao: Maria Henao, Mary Henao 


31 . Sex Indicated by Independent Nouns.—In the 
following pairs of nouns, the masculine and the feminine are 
entirely independent words: 


el caballo, the horse: 
el hombre, el varon, the man: 
el macho, the male: 
el padre, the father: 
el toro, the bull: 
el yerno, the son-in-law: 


la yegua, the mare 

la mujer, the woman 

la hembra, the female 

la madre, the mother 

la vaca, the coze 

la nuera, the daughter-in-law 


32. Epicene Nouns. - Some nouns, called epicene 
nouns, apply to both sexes, without changing either their 
form or their gender. To this class belong the names of 
birds and of nearly all small animals. As a rule, those 
ending in -a, -e, or -iz are feminine; all others, masculine. 


la abeja, the bee 
la culebra, the snake 
la hormiga, the ant 
la liebre, the hare 
la chinche, the bedbug 
el gusano, the worm 
el insecto, the insect 


el loro, the parrot 
el avestruz, the ostrich 
la codorniz, the quail 
la perdiz, the partridge 
el faisan, the pheasant 
el pez, the fish 


The nouns maclio, male , and hembra, female , are added 
to epicenes to denote sex. 

la culebra maelio, the male snake: la culebra hembra, the female 

snake 

un loro macho, a male parrot: un loro hembra, a female 

parrot 

It will be observed that, whatever the sex indicated, the 
article prefixed to an epicene noun remains unaltered. Other 
adjectives may be made to agree with the nouns macho and 
hembra , although it is preferable to make them agree with 
the article. 


La paloma macho es muy' 
her mo so , 

or, better, 

La paloma macho es muy 
hermosSi. 


The male pigeon is very hand 
some. 





18 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


19 


El loro hembra es tan habla- 
dorsi como el loro macho, 
or, better, 

El loro hembra es tan ha- 
blador como el loro macho. 


The female parrot is as talkative 
as the male. 


In cases of this kind, however, it is better to use an 
entirely different form of expression, saying el macho de —, 
the male of—; la hembra de —, the female of—. The 
adjective should then agree with either macho or hembra , as 
the case may be. 


El macho de la paloma es muy 
hermoso. 

La hembra del loro es tan habla- 
dor a. como el macho. 


The male of the pigeon is very 
handsome. 

The female of the parrot is as 
talkative as the male. 


33. Among epicene nouns applying to human beings, 
la persona, the person, is worthy of notice. As indicated 
by the article, this noun is feminine —unlike the English 
person , which is used as masculine, being represented by the 
masculine pronoun he. 


El senor Rodriguez es persona 
muy buena {not, bueno) y muy 
honrada {not, honrado). 

Aqui estuvieron varias {not, va- 
rios) personas, pero yo no hable 
con ninguna {not, ninguno) de 
ellas {not, ellos). 


Mr. Rodriguez is a very kind and 
very honest person. 

Several persons were here, but I 
did not speak with any of them. 


34. Use of the Masculine Plural to Indicate Indi¬ 
viduals of Both Sexes. —It was stated (Art. 30) that, 
when there are two nouns to indicate the sex of classes of 
persons or animals, the masculine noun is employed to 
denote the whole class: los reyes, like the English kings , 
mean’s all kings and queens; and, similarly, speaking of the 
duties of children to their parents, the expression los hijos, 
sons, may be taken in a general sense to denote all sons and 
daughters, and the expression los padres, fathers , to denote 
all fathers and mothers. 

The plural masculine form is likewise used to denote 
special groups of individuals belonging to the same class, 
but of different sexes. 






20 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§18 


padre, father 
madre, mother 

rey, king 
reina, queen 

hi jo, son 
hija, daughter 

sobrino, nephew 
sobrina, niece 1 


| mis pad res, my parents 
| Vi a los reyes, / saw the king and queen 
|mis hijos, my children 
l mis sobrinos, my nephews and nieces 


GENDER OF NOUNS ACCORDING TO ENDING 

35. The gender of nouns not included in the foregoing 
articles is ascertained by the following 

General Rule. — Nouns ending in either -a or -d are femi¬ 


nine; other nouns, masculine. 

la casa, the house 
la plata, the silver 
la ciudad, the city 
la virtud, the virtue 
la mitad, the half 
el rubi, the ruby 
el espirku, the spirit 
el frac, the dress coat 
el papel, the paper 
el drbol, the tree 
el album, the album 


el catre, the cot 

el cafe, the coffee 

el libro, the book 

el chaco, the military cap 

el carbon, the coal 

el gravamen, the encumbrance 

el comedor, the dining room 

el martes, the Tuesday 

el pais, the country 

el carey, the turtle shell 

el ajedrez, the chess game 


There are a great many exceptions to this rule. The most 
important ones are given in the next article. As will be 
observed, some of the nouns that deviate from the general 
rule form special groups or classes, and can, therefore, be 
included under a secondary rule; others, on the contrary, can¬ 
not be classified, and their gender must be separately learned. 

36. Exceptions. —1. Names of Cities and Letters. — The 
names of cities, and those of letters, are feminine. 


La i es la tercera vocal. 

La beta es la segunda letra del 
alfabeto griego. 

Buenos-Aires esta situada en la 
boca del Plata. 

La bella Corinto fue facilmente 
conquistada. 


/ is the third vowel. 

Beta is the second letter of the 
Greek alphabet. 

Buenos Ayres is situated at the 
mouth of the Plata. 

The beautiful Corinth was easily 
conquered. 





§18 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 



The names of some cities are occasionally used as mascu¬ 
line, especially if they end in - o ; but it is always correct to 
use them as feminine. 

2. Names of rivers , oceans , seas , mountains , and ships, 
in which the nouns 1*10, river; oceano, ocean; mar, sea; 
monte, mount; montes, mountains; buque, ship are 
understood, are masculine, regardless of their ending. This 
can scarcely be considered an exception, as the gender of 
such nouns is naturally that of the common nouns under¬ 
stood before them. 

Xtf 
/ 

the Plata (river), the Magdalena 
(river), the Atlantic (ocean), 
the Mediterranean (sea), the 
Etna (mount), the Himalaya 
(mountains). 

The Maria Teresa and the Viz¬ 
caya were captured at the 
battle of Santiago. 

3. Words Used as Their Own Names. — Any word referred 
to simply as a word, irrespectively of its meaning, is treated 
as a masculine noun. 


el (rio) Plata , el (rio) Magda¬ 
lena , el (oceano) Atlantico el 
(mar) Mediterraneo , el 
(monte) Etna , los (montes) 
Himalayas. 

El (buque) Maria Teresa y el 
(buque) Vizcaya fueron cap- 
turados en la batalla de San- 


“ Naturaleza" es femenino. 

Este parrafo contiene muchos 
‘ ‘ paras. ’ ’ 

Ese “ bella ” es innecessario en 
esa frase. 


“Nature” is feminine. 

This paragraph contains many 
“for’s.” 

That “beautiful” is unnecessary 
in that phrase. 


4. Exceptions Among Nouns Ending hi -a.—The follow¬ 
ing are masculine: 

{a) A few ending in -a. 

el albala, the letter patent 
el sofa, the sofa 

( b ) Nearly all those derived from the Greek and ending 
in -ma. 

el emblema, the emblem 
el poema, the poem 
el clima, the climate 


el programa, the program 
el sintoma, the symptom 
el sistema, the system 


el mana, the manna 
el Canada, Ccinada 






22 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


18 


The following, however, are feminine: 


la apostema, the gathering , the 
abscess 

el asm a,* the asthma 
la broma, the jest 
la diadema, the diadem 


la estratagema, the stratagem 
la fantasma, the apparition 
la flema, the phlegm 
la tema, the dislike, the animosity 


When fantasma means phantasm , it is masculine: uim 
fantasma is a real apparition; un fantasma , something seen 
in imagination'. 

Anatenia, anathem , is ambiguous; that is, can be used 
as either masculine or feminine at pleasure. It is, however, 
more commonly used as masculine. 

(c) Also, 


el colera, the cholera 
el com eta, the comet 
el contra, the cons (in the pros 
and the cons) 


el dia, the day 
el mapa, the map 
el planeta, the planet 


5 . Exceptions Among Nouns in -d.—The following are 
masculine: 


el almud (a dry measure) 
el alud, the avalanche 
el ardid, the ruse 
el aspid, the asp 
el Talmud, the Talmud 


el ataud, the coffin 
el cesped, the grass, the sod 
el laud, the lute 
el sud, the south 


6 . Exceptions Among Nouns in -e. — A great many nouns 
ending in -e are feminine. Only the most important will be 
given here. 

( a) The names^of mathematical lines. 


la tangente, the tangent 

{b) Nouns ending in 
vowels is emphasized. 

la superficie, the surface 
la serie, the series 


la elipse, the ellipse 


la intemperie, the open air 
la especie, the species 


-ie, in which neither of these two 


*Asma , although feminine, takes the masculine form of the definite 
article, as do all feminine nouns beginning with an emphatic a, or 
with ha, the a being emphatic. 






18 SPANISH GRAMMAR 


23 


(f) Nouns ending; in -umbre (except el alumbre, the 
alum). 


la costumbre, the custom 
la muchedumbre, the throng 
la legumbre, the vegetable {pulse) 

(d) Also, 

la apocope, the apocopation 
el ave,* the fozvl, the bird 
la calle, the street 
la carne, the meat , the beef 
la catastrofe, the catastrophe 
la clase, the class 
la clave, the key {as to a text¬ 
book) 

la cohorte, the cohort 

la corriente, the current 

la corte, the {royal) court 

la chinche, the bedbug 

la creciente, the freshet 

la estirpe, the stock, the lineage 

la falange, the phalanx 

la faringe, the pharynx 

la fase, the phase 

la fe, the faith 

la fiebre, the fever 

la frase, the phrase 

la fuente, the fountain; the source 

la frente, the forehead 

la gente, the people 

el hambre,* the hunger 

la hueste, the host {army) 

la Indole, the character 

la ingle, the groin 

la laringe, the larynx 

la leche, the milk 


la lumbre, the fire 
la azumbre {a liquid measure) 
la cumbre, the summit 


la liebre, the hare 
la Have, the key 
la mente, the mind 
la mole, the massive thing 
la muerte, the death 
la mugre, the dirt 
la nave, the ship; the aisle 
la nieve, the snow 
la noche, the night 
la nube, the cloud 
la paralaje, the parallax 
la parte, the part 
la patente, the patent 
la peste, the pest , the plague 
la piramide, the pyramid 
la plebe, the populace 
la prole, the offspring 
la salve, the Salve Regina 
la sangre, the blood 
la sede, the See {ecclesiastical 
term) 

la serpiente, 


3 ] 

’ | the serpent 


la sierpe, 

la simiente, the seed 
la suerte, the fate , the lot 
la tarde, the afternoon 
la tilde, the accent mark 
la torre, the tower 
la ubre, the udder 


The following are ambiguous [see Art. 36, 4 ($)]: 

el or la dote, the dowry el or la lente, the lens 

el or la estambre, the stamen el or la tripode, the tripod 

Arte, art , is ambiguous in the singular (although, like 
all feminine nouns beginning with an emphatic a , it requires 


*See foot-note on page 22. 






24 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§18 


the masculine form of the definite article); in the plural, 
feminine. The plural form artes , used without any qualifi¬ 


cation, generally has the same 
fine arts. 

El arte de la escultura estaba 
muy avanzado ( or, avanzada) 
entre los griegos. 
lias artes estan niuy atrasadas 
en los Estados Unidos. 


meaning as bellas artes. 

The art of sculpture was far 
advanced among the Greeks. 

The fine arts are very little ad¬ 
vanced in the United States. 


7. Exceptions Among Nouns in -i.— The only impor¬ 
tant feminine noun ending in -i is la metropoli, which 
means either the metropolis or the mother country. 

8. Exceptions Among Nouns in - 1 .— The following are 
feminine: 


la cal, the lime 

la canal, the gutter, the trench 
la capital, the capital (city ) 
la carcel, the jail 
la col, the cabbage 
la credencial, the credential 
la decretal, the decretal 

9. Exceptions 
feminine: 

(a) Those ending in -ion. 

la cancion, the song 
la oracidn, the prayer 
la transaccion, the transaction 
la discusion, the discussion 


la hiel, the gall 

la miel, the honey 

la moral, the morals, ethics 

la pastoral, the pastoral 

la piel, the skin 

la serial, the signal, the mark 

following are 


la religion, the religion 
la rebelion, the rebellion 
la sugestion, the suggestion 
la reflexion, the reflection 


Among Nouns in -n. — The 


The following, however, are masculine: 

el bastion, the bulwark I el sarampion, the measles 

el gorrion, the sparrow 

(b) Augmentatives in -on, even if derived from feminine 
primitives. 

el jarron, the large vase (from la I el mujeron, the big woman (from 
jarra, the vase ) | la mujer, the woman ) * 

It is to be observed that feminine nouns denoting living 
beings have feminine augmentatives in - ona or masculine 
in -6n. 





§18 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


25 


el mujeron, or la mujerona, the 
big woman 

( c ) Also, 

la clin, or la crin, the mane 
la imagen, the image 
la razon, the reason 


el culebron, or la culebrona, 

the big snake 

la sarten, the pan 
la sazon, the ripeness; the occasion 
la sien, the temple (side of the 
head) 


Margen, bank, margin, is ambiguous in the singular; in 
the plural, it is generally used as feminine. 


el or la margen del rlo 

el or la margen de esta pagina 

las margenes del Amazonas 


the bank of the river 
the margin of this page 
the banks of the Amazon 


With reference to the margin of a page, however, the 
masculine form is preferred. 

Orden, order , is masculine when it means arrangement, 
disposition of things, succession of events, orderly con¬ 
ditions; and also when it denotes a group in a scientific 
classification. In all other cases it is feminine. 


El orden de los factores no altera 
el producto. 

Lo que comunmente se llama el 
orden universal es una de las 
fantasias de la ignorancia. 

Aun no se ha restablecido el orden 
publico. 

IA cu&l de los ordenes de esta 
clase zoologica pertenece el 
hombre? 

(jQuien ha dado esa orden? 

San Pacomio de Egipto fue el 
fundador delas ordenes monas- 
ticas. 


The order of the factors does not 
alter the product. 

What is commonly called univer¬ 
sal order is one of the fancies of 
ignorance. 

Public order has -not yet been 
reestablished. 

To which of the orders of this 
zoological class does man be¬ 
long? 

Who has given that order? 

St. Pachomins of Egypt was the 
founder of monastic orders. 


10. Exceptions Among Nouns in -o.—Of ordinary nouns 
ending in -o, only la mano, the hand , is feminine. 

11. Exceptions Among Nouns in -r. —The following are 
feminine: 


la bajamar, the low tide 
la flor, the flower 
la labor, the labor 


la segur, the axe (emblem of the 
law), the sickle 
la pleamar, the high tide 






26 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


18 


The following are ambiguous: 

azucar, sugar | calor, heat \ color, color \ mar, sea 

Of these, however, the three last mentioned are today 
generally used as masculine. When mar , followed by a 
proper noun, denotes a special body of water of which the 
noun is the name, it is invariably masculine. 

el mar Mediterraneo, the Med- I el mar de las Antillas, the Carib- 
iterranean sea bean sea 

el mar Blanco, the White sea 

Mar is feminine in the colloquial idiomatic expression 
la mar, a great deal , a great many. Also, in the phrase la 
alta mar, the high seas. 

- 12. Exceptions Among Nouns in -s. — The following are 
feminine: 

(a) Nouns in -sis and -xis derived from the Greek, 
la crisis, the crisis | la tesis, the thesis | la sintaxis, the syntax 


But Apocalipsis, Genesis , and parentesis are masculine, and 
analisis, analysis , and enfasis, emphasis , are ambiguous. 

( b ) Plural nouns ending in -as (see Art. 26). 
las albricias, the reward \ las nupcias, the nuptials 


But los afueras. the outskirts, is masculine. 


( c ) Also, 

las Azores, the Azores 

la bilis, the bile 

las cortes, the cortes 

las efemerides, the ephemeris 

las mientes, the mind 


la mies, the seed 

las partes, the accomplishments , 
the endowments 
la res, the head of cattle 
la tos, the cough 


Cutis, skin , is ambiguous. 

13. Exception Among Nouns in- u.—The only feminine 
noun ending in -u is la trlbu, the tribe. 

14. Exceptions Among Nouns in -x. — There are two: 

la onix, the onyx | la sardonix, the sardonyx 


15. Exceptions Among Nouns in -y. — There are two: 

la grey, the flock \ la ley, the law 

16. Exceptions Among Nouns in -z.—The following are 
feminine: 



18 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


27 


(a) All derived nouns in 
abstract. 

la altivez, the haughtiness 
la honradez, the honesty 

(b) Also, 

la cerviz, the cervix, the neck 

la cicatriz, the scar 

la codorniz, the quail 

la coz, the kick 

la cruz, the cross 

la faz, the face 

la haz, the surface 

la hez, the scum, the dregs 

la hoz, the sickle 

la lombriz, the worm 

la luz, the light 


-ez indicating qualities in the 

la embriaguez, the drunkenness 
la ninez, the childhood 

la matriz, the womb 

la nariz, the nose 

la nuez, the nut 

la paz, the peace 

la perdiz, the partridge 

la pez, the pitch 

la poraez, the pumice 

la raiz, the root 

la tez, the hue of the skin 

la vez, the occasion, the time 

la voz, the voice 


17. Compound Nouns. — Compounds whose second element 
is an unaltered noun, generally are of the same gender 
as that noun. 


la sinrazon, the injustice [compound of sin, without, and 
razou, reason, the latter being feminine, Art. 36, 9 (r)]. 

However, most all compounds of a verb and a substantive 
are masculine, even if the substantive is feminine. 

el pasamano, the railing I el cortaplumas, the knife 

el tapaboca, the slap in the mouth \ el guardarropa, the wardrobe 


37 . Nouns Having Two Genders, but witli Dif¬ 
ferent Meanings. —There are some nouns that are used as 
either masculine or feminine, but in different senses. Several 
of these —as orden, order— have been already mentioned, but, 


for convenience of reference, 
of the same class. 

el atalaya, the guard in a watch 
tower 

el cometa, the comet 
el colera, the cholera 
el corneta, the bugler 
el corte, the cut, the cutting 
el canal, the canal, the strait, the 
Passage 


are here grouped with others 

la atalaya, the watch tower 

la cometa, the kite 
la colera, the anger, the wrath 
la corneta, the bugle 
la corte, the {royal) court 
la canal, the ditch, the gutter 





28 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§18 


el capital, the capital (wealth) 
el espada, the swordsman 
el fantasma, the phantom 
el frente, the front 
el gallina, the coward (man) 
el gula, the guide (a man) 

el guardia, the guard (one man) 

el levita, the Levite 

el moral, the mulberry tree 

el orden, the order [see Art. 36, 

9(c)] 

el ordenanza, the orderly 

el parte, the despatch , the report , 
the communication 
el pez, the fish 
el tema, the theme 
el trompeta, the trumpeter 


la capital, the capital (city) 
la espada, the sword 
la fantasma, the apparition 
la frente, the forehead 
la gallina, the hen 
la guia, the guide (in every other 
sense) 

la guardia, the guard (a body ot 
soldiers) 

la levita, the frock coat 
la moral, the morals , the ethics 
la orden, the order [see Art. 36, 
9(c)] 

la ordenanza, the ordinance , the 
regulation 
la parte, the part 

la pez, the pitch 

la tema, the dislike , the animosity 
la trompeta, the trumpet 


38. General Remark on the Gender of Nouns.— As 
will be seen from the foregoing articles, the gender of nouns 
is rather a complex subject. The rules and exceptions here 
given cover all nouns met with in ordinary conversation and 
literature, and certainly all those that a beginner is likely to 
need. In cases of doubt, the dictionary should be resorted 
to. In Spanish dictionaries, the gender of every noun is 
indicated by one of the abbreviations m. or f. — masculino and 
femenino , respectively— printed after the noun. 


NEUTERS 

39. Neuter Substantives and Gender. —There are 
substantives that cannot be represented in discourse by 
either el or ella. They are, therefore, neither masculine nor 
feminine; hence, the name neuter substantives, or sim¬ 
ply neuters, by which they are known. (The term neuter 
is derived from a Latin word meaning neither one 7ior the 
other.) They are said to be of the neuter gender, and 
are referred to, or represented by, ello, which is called the 
neuter personal pronoun. 




§18 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


29 


The following are some of the most important neuters: 


esto, this , meaning this thing 
or this fact 

eso, that, meaning that thing 
or that fact 

aquello, that, yonder thing, 
and also that fact 


alft-o, something 
muclio, much, a great deal 
inula, nothing 
poco, little 

cuanto, todo, everything, all 


The first three— esto, eso, aquello — belong to the class of 
demonstrative pronouns. They are often employed 
instead of ello to represent other neuters. The difference 
between aquello and eso will be presently explained. 

Elio, like other personal pronouns, is inflective. The 
nominative and the prepositional form are both ello; the 
accusative is lo, and the dative le. These forms, when they 
can be translated literally, are rendered by it. 

Neuter substantives are always singular, and resemble 
masculine substantives in that they require the masculine 
form of adjectives modifying them. 


El senor Rojas dejo esto aqui, 
diciendo que ello nos podria 
ser util. 

Eso no merece la importancia que 
los filosofos, creyendo ver en 
ello una solucion del gran pro- 
blema, le han dado ultima- 
mente. 

Perdi cuanto tenia, y, aunque ello 
no era mucho, me hubiera ser- 
vido para vivir comodamente 
cuatro anos — el tiempo que 
gaste en ganarlo. 

Parece que hablaban de algo 
serio, pero yo no pude oir ni 
una palabra de ello. 

^Que es aquello bianco que parece 
nieve? ^No lo ve usted? —Si 
lo veo; pero eso no puede ser 
nieve, pues aqui no nieva nunca. 


Mr. Rojas left this here, saying 
that it might be useful to us. 

That does not deserve the impor¬ 
tance that philosophers, believ¬ 
ing to see in it a solution of 
the great problem, have lately 
given to it. 

I lost all I had, and although it 
was not much, it would have 
enabled me to live (or, served 
to support me) comfortably for 
four years —the time I spent 
earning it. 

It seems that they were speaking 
of something serious, but I could 
not hear one word of it. 

What is yonder white thing that 
looks like snow? Do you not 
see it? —Yes, I do; but that 
cannot be snow, for it never 
snows here. 




30 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§18 


Todo en la vida es incierto. 

Nada es mas traicionero que la 
fortuna; nada m&s caprichoso. 


Everything in life is uncertain. 
Nothing is more treacherous than 
fortune; nothing more capri¬ 
cious. 


Remark. — The words algo, mucho, nada , poco,cuanto do not always 
perform the functions of substantives; they can all perform the office 
of adverbs, and mucho and poco, that of adjectives. They are classed 
as neuters only when employed as substantives. 


40. Neuter Demonstrative Pronouns. —The demon¬ 
strative pronouns esto, eso, aquello should not be confounded 
with the adjectives este, this; ese, that; aquel, that, yonder, 
which have the feminine forms estn, esn, aquel\a , and will 
here be called demonstrative adjectives. Although 
these adjectives are by some grammarians called demonstra¬ 
tive pronouns, they will not be so classed in this work, in 
which the term pronoun will be applied to substantives only. 

41. With reference to material things, esto denotes objects 
that are nearer to the first than to the second person; eso, 
objects that are nearer to the second person; and aquello, 
objects that are equally remote from both persons. It is, 
however, proper to employ eso instead of aquello, as in 
English that instead of yonder; but the converse proposition 
is not tru o, —aquello cannot always take the place of eso. 

A person, referring to something lying beside him, or 
which he is holding, would ask, 

dQue es esto? | What is this? 


and the person addressed would answer, 

Eso es un instrumento de agri- I That is a surveying instrument, 
mensura. 

In this case, aquello would not be permissible. 

Referring to a distant object, either of the two following 
forms is proper, although the first is both more elegant and 
more common: 

iQue es aqtiello? I What is that thing yonder? 

<;Que es eso? \ What is that? 

\ 

42. Esto serves to announce or introduce a statement, 
and also to reproduce a statement just made by the speaker 
or writer. 



18 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


31 


La diferencia entre el anarquismo 
y el socialismo consiste en esto: 
el anarquismo defiende la abo- 
licion de todo gobierno; el socia¬ 
lismo, la extension de la esfera 
del gobierno. 

Los trabajadores de las minas 
piensan declarar otra huelga; 
esto sin duda causara muchos 
desordenes. 


The difference between anarchism 
and socialism consists in this: 
anarchism -advocates the abol¬ 
ishment of all government; 
socialism, the extension of the 
sphere of government. 

The miners intend to declare 
another strike; this will no doubt 
cause many disturbances. 


Eso reproduces a statement 
to or of. 

Creo que debemos atacar las forti- 
ficaciones esta noche. — Eso seria 
sacrificar nuestro ejercito inutil- 
mente. 

He oido decir que el gobierno 
americano piensa intervenir en 
la guerra de Africa; mas creo 
que en eso no hay nada cierto. 


made by the person spoken 

I think we ought to attack the 
fortifications tonight. — That 
would be to uselessly sacrifice 
our army. 

I have heard that the American 
government intends to interfere 
in the African war; but I think 
there is no truth in that {liter¬ 
ally, there is nothing true in 
that). 


The speaker or writer that makes a statement may, how¬ 
ever, consider it in either of two different manners: if he 
wishes to refer to it as representing an idea that he has in 
mind, he uses esto , as he would with reference to an object 
he was holding; if he wishes to refer to the statement as 
representing the idea that he assumes it to have aroused in 
the listener or reader, he regards it as representing some¬ 
thing that is in the mind of the listener or reader, instead of 
in his own, and uses eso, as he would with reference to an 
object that the listener or reader was holding. The distinc¬ 
tion is the same as that between this and that in English. 


El amor al dinero serd la ruina 
de los Estados Unidos. Eso 
(6 esto) no puede dudarse. 

Las naciones, como los hombres, 
nacen, crecen, envejecen y mue- 
ren. La historia da testimonio 
de esto (6 eso). 


The love of money will be the 
ruin of the United States. That 
{or, this) cannot be doubted. 

Nations, like men, are born, grow, 
become old, and die. History 
bears witness to this {or, to 
that). 





32 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


18 


Either aquello or eso may be employed with reference to 
remote events, whether past or future. 


Varios oficiales opinaban que el 
ataque debia hacerse ese mismo 
dia; pero el general en jefe dijo 
que aquello (6 eso) serla sacri- 
ficar el ej^rcito inutilmente. 


Several officers were of the opin¬ 
ion that the attack ought to be 
made that very day; but the 
commander-in-chief said that 
that would be to uselessly sac¬ 
rifice the army. 


43. The neuter demonstratives —mainly eso —are often 
used instead of ello to represent a neuter substantive, as this 
and that are used in English instead of it. 


Le dimos cuanto teniamos, pero 
nos dijo que eso (6 ello) no 
era suficiente. 

Gana poco , pero vive holgada- 
mente con eso (6 con ello). 


We gave him all we had, but he 
told us that that was not suffi¬ 
cient. 

He earns little, blit he lives com¬ 
fortably on it. 


44. Neuter Pronouns Used to Represent a Sen¬ 
tence or a Phrase.— As appears from the examples given 
in Art. 42, the neuter demonstratives can be used with 
reference not only to neuter substantives, but also to whole 
phrases or sentences. From the point of view of their repro¬ 
duction or representation in discourse, sentences and phrases 
are neuter; they must be represented either by ello or by 
one of the neuter demonstratives. In all the examples given 
in Arts. 42 and 43, ello may be substituted for eso and 
esto, although, as a rule, these demonstratives are to be pre¬ 
ferred, except after a preposition. If the phrase or sentence 
is reproduced in the accusative, the accusative case lo (Eng¬ 
lish it) is used instead of ello. In the following examples, 
the phrases and sentences reproduced by neuter pronouns 
are printed in Italic; the neuter pronouns, in bold type. It 
will be observed that in some cases these pronouns are 
rendered by so, or by the combination do so. 

Macho deseo aprender el espaiiol , | I wish very much to learn Span- 
pero no tengo paciencia para I ish, but I have no patience to 
ello. | do so. 

(Eso would be proper, but ello is better.) 




18 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


33 


Aunque estos articulos son mas 
caros que los otros, eso no 
prueba que sean mejores. 

(Elio would be proper 

Dijo que de ningun modo acep- 
tqria nuestra proposicion , y lo 
dijo de una manera tan termi- 
nante, que nos parecio inutil 
insistir. 

(Dijo esto would be prope 

Los trabajadores han rehusado la 
oferta que los duehos de las 
minas les han hecho, y es pro¬ 
bable que esto (6 ello) tenga 
consecuencias serias. 

Nos han dicho que usted piensa 
retirarse de los negocios,— 
iCuando lo oyeron ustedes 
decir? 


Although these articles are more 
expensive than the others, that 
does not prove that they are 
better. 

, but eso is preferable.) 

He said that he would by no 
means accept our proposition, 
and he said it in so positive a 
manner that we thought it use¬ 
less to insist. 

', but lo dijo is preferable.) 

The working men have refused 
the offer the owners of the 
mines have made them, and it 
is likely that this will have seri¬ 
ous consequences. 

We have been told that you intend 
to retire from business. — When 
did you hear it? 


45. The Infinitive as a Neuter. —The infinitive is a 
word that partakes both of the nature of a substantive and of 
that of a verb. With respect to its grammatical functions, 
it is always a substantive; for it always performs the office 
of either the subject of a sentence, the accusative of a verb, 
or the object of a preposition. It is, besides, modified by 
adjectives (the article among them), after the manner of 
other substantives. In other respects, however, its gram¬ 
mar is that of the verb: it often has a subject, and may be 
modified by an adverb, or take the accusative, the dative, or 
the prepositional case of a pronoun, as other verbal forms 
do. Furthermore, it is the fundamental form of the verb, 
from which other forms are derived, and by which the verb 
is named. Some grammarians class it as a verb; others 
as a substantive. Both classifications are open to objection, 
and it is preferable to treat the infinitive as belonging to a 
mixed class, having some of the characteristics of the 
substantive and some of those of the verb. 

46. The infinitive, as a substantive, is singular, and adjec¬ 
tives modifying it must be placed in the singular masculine 





34 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


18 


form. In this respect, then, it is a neuter substantive, 
although it is the only one that takes the article. 


Aguardar es siempre penoso. 

El comer y el beber eran los prin- 
cipales placeres del emperador. 
El mueho trabajar es danoso 
para la salud. 


Waiting is always painful. 

Eating and drinking were the 
main pleasures of the emperor. 
Too much working is injurious to 
health. 


47. With regard also to its representation in discourse, 
the infinitive is a neuter. 


Quiero salir, pero no tengo fuer- 
zas para ello. 

(Eso would be proper, 

Los espartanos creian que mentir 
era accion meritoria; se ejer- 
citaban en ello, y lo ensena- 
ban k sus hijos. 


I wish to go out, but have no 
strength to do so. 
but ello is preferable.) 

The Spartans thought that lying 
was a meritorious action; they 
trained themselves in it, and 
taught it to their children. 


48. Tlie Neuter EO. — The word lo , besides being 
the accusative case of both el and ello, is a neuter substan¬ 
tive having the same, meaning as la cosa, the thing , las 
cosas, the things. Adjectives referring to it should, as in 
the case of other neuters, be placed in the masculine singular 
form. When lo is immediately followed by an adjective, it is 
rendered by things , if reference is made to material objects; 
by the , followed by the corresponding English adjective, if 
reference is made to abstract qualities taken in a general 
sense. The combination formed with lo and an adjective 
is itself treated as a neuter. 


Lo barato siempre es caro. 

Parece que en el mundo lo malo 
es por desgracia m&s comun 
que lo bueno. 

Segun algunos filosofos, lo hello 
y lo bueno estan Intimamente 
ligados. 

Lo dificil es encontrar comprador. 

Lo malo es que 61 partio sin darme 
su direccion. 


Cheap things are always dear. 

It seems that in the world the 
bad is unfortunately more com¬ 
mon than the good. 

According to some philosophers, 
the beautiful and the good are 
intimately related. 

The difficult thing (about it) is 
to find a buyer. 

The trouble ( literally , the bad 
thing) is that he left without 
giving me his address. 






§18 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


35 


El puente de Brooklyn es en mi 
opinion lo mas interesante que 
un ingeniero puede ver en 
Nueva-York. 

Lo estipulado entre los dos fue 
lo siguiente. 

Aunque se que lo amargo es 
bueno para la bilis, yo no lo 
tomb nunca, pues tengo re- 
pugnancia por ello. 


The Brooklyn bridge is, in my 
opinion, the most interesting 
thing an engineer can see in 
New York. 

What was stipulated ( literally , the 
stipulated thing) between the 
two was the following. 

Although I know that bitter things 
are good for biliousness, I never 
take them, for they are repul¬ 
sive to me. 


In the last example, the second lo is the accusative of ello, 

and represents the neuter combination lo amargo, to which 

also the adjective bueno and the pronoun ello refer. 

t' 

49. Instead of things, such substantives as part, point, 


affair, portion may be implied 
stances will indicate what the 

Lo mejor del cuento. 

Esto es lo mas importante de la 
obra. 

Estabamos en lo mejor del baile. 


Todavia estd el congreso discu- 
tiendo lo del canal. 

En lo alto de la atmbsfera es 
dificil respirar. 


Lo m&s granado del ejercito pere- 
cio en el combate de aquebdia. 


in the neuter lo. The circum- 
implied substantive is. 

The best part of the story. 

This is the most important part 
of the work. 

The ball was at its highest ( more 
literally , We were in the best 
part of the ball). 

Congress is still discussing the 
canal affair. 

It is difficult to breathe in the 
upper regions ( more literally, 
in the high regions) of the 
atmosphere. 

The choicest part of the army 
perished in the battle of that 
day. 


50. In some cases, lo followed by an adjective is used to 
denote a quality or property in the abstract, but with refer¬ 
ence to a substantive; that is, the phrase is not used to 
denote that quality or property in general, but as applied to 
a particular object; and then it is better rendered by an 
English substantive expressing the same quality or property. 


Washington se distinguio por lo 
canto, no menos que por lo 
Valero so. 


Washington distinguished himself 
for his prudence no less than 
for his bravery. 





36 SPANISH GRAMMAR §18 


Lo hermoso de sus ojos cautiva k 
cuantos la miran. 

Lo oscuro de su estilo, lo compli- 
cado de sus expresiones, y lo 
largo de sus frases, haeen k este 
autor en extremo tedioso. 


The beauty of her eyes captivates 
all those who look at her. 

The obscurity of his style, the 
complexity of his expressions, 
and the great length of his 
phrases, make this author ex¬ 
tremely tedious. 


51. The combination lo que , which literally means the 
thing which , or that which , is better rendered by what. 


dNo sabe usted lo que me han 
dicho? 

Lo que usted necesita es ejercicio. 
Es mas lo que debo que lo que 
tengo. 


Do you not know what they have 
told me? 

What you need is exercise. 

What I owe is more than what I 
have. 


In the expression todo lo que , the word todo is an adjective 
modifying the neuter lo. That phrase literally means all that 
which , but is better rendered simply by all , or all that. 

Hemos perdido todo lo que teni- We have lost all we had. 
amos. 

Todo lo que brilla no es oro. All that glitters is not gold. 

Remark. —In connection with the examples given above, the 
student’s attention is called to a most important subject; namely, that 
of translating from English into Spanish. In the explanations as 
well as in the examples he reads, he is likely to notice only what are 
the English words and forms of expression that render certain Span¬ 
ish words and forms, without stopping to think of the reverse process; 
namely, what are the Spanish forms by which certain peculiar English 
forms are rendered. He should pay particular attention to the points 
of difference existing in some cases between the English way and 
the Spanish way of expressing the same thought, lest he should, when 
translating from English into Spanish, fall into the common error of 
translating everything literally. From the last two examples, for 
instance, he will learn that the English sentences in the right-hand 
column could not be literally rendered into Spanish, thus: LJemos 
perdido todo nosolros teniamos, Todo que brilla no es oro. These 
expressions have absolutely no meaning in Spanish —they are simply 
unintelligible. It is not sufficient for the student to know that the 
Spanish expression todo lo que means all or all that: he should also 
remember that the English expressions all , all that are rendered by 
todo lo que , and ?iot by todo , or todo que. 

52. In exclamatory sentences, lo que has the same 
meaning as cuanto, how much , and is really an adverbial 
phrase. 





§18 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


37 


jLo que han robado los empleados 
de este gobierno! 
jLo que vale el dinero en un pals 
de mercaderes! 


How much have the employes of 
this government stolen! 

How much is money worth in a 
country of traffickers! 


53. Lo serves to represent predicatively an adjective of 
either number or gender, or an adjectival phrase, after one 
of the verbs ser, to be; estar, to be; parecer, to look , and a 
few others. This lo is sometimes rendered into English by so; 
sometimes it is not rendered at all, while not infrequently the 


adjective must be repeated. 

Aqui viven muchas personas 
ricas, y otras que, aunque no 
lo son, quieren parecerlo. 

^Estd usted listof —No lo estoy 
todavia, pero pronto lo estare. 

Ese problema me parece muy 
dificil. — A mi no me lo parece. 

,iEs este el libro demi herniano?— 
No lo es. 


Many rich persons live here, and 
others that, although they are 
not rich, wish to appear so. 

Are you ready? —I am not yet, 
but shall be soon. 

That problem seems very difficult 
to me.— It does not (seem so) 
to me. 

Is this my brother’s book? —It is 
not. 


A substantive or a substantive phrase modifying another 
substantive or substantive phrase through ser , estar,ox Parecer 


is similarly represented. 

iEs usted el senor Gomez f — Si, 
senor, lo soy. 

Aquel caballero parece maestro de 
escuela.—~LtO es, en efecto. 


Are you Mr. Gomez? — Yes, sir, 
I am. 

Yonder gentleman looks like a 
school teacher. — He is so, in 
reality {or, better , He really is 
one). 


54. Phrases of a peculiar character are formed with lo 
followed by an adjective or adverb (or their equivalents), 
the word que, and a verb. They can often be rendered by 
using, instead of the Spanish verb, the English gerund 
preceded by a possessive adjective, and modifying the 
English adjective or adverb corresponding to that placed 
between lo and que, by either so or very, as the combination 
lo . . . que always implies an intensification of the meaning 
of that adjective or adverb. In some cases, however, it is 





38 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§18 


necessary to have recourse to a much freer translation. It 
is to be observed that the adjective following lo in these 
constructions agrees in number and gender with the sub¬ 
stantive to which it refers. 


Lo enfermo que estaba me impi- 
dio ir k verlo. 

Me sorprende ver lo mal que esa 
senorita habla el espanol, a 
pesar de lo mucho que lo ha 
estudiado. 

Espana es en gran parte respon- 
sable por lo desmora/izadas que 
aun estan las republicas sur- 
americanas. 


Lo egoistas que son los hombres 
de negocios, que tienen tanta 
influencia en la polltica exterior 
de los Estados Unidos, ha pro- 
ducido gran descontento entre 
los cubanos, a pesar de lo agra- 
decidos que estos naturalmente 
estan al gobierno americano. 


My being then very sick pre¬ 
vented me from going to see 
you. 

It surprises me to see how badly 
that young lady speaks Spanish, 
notwithstanding her having (or, 
that she has) studied it a great 
deal. 

Spain is to a great extent respon¬ 
sible for the great demoraliza¬ 
tion still existing in the South 
American republics ( more liter¬ 
ally, for the South American 
republics being still so much 
demoralized). 

The great selfishness of business 
men, who have so much influ¬ 
ence in the foreign policy of the 
United States, has produced 
great discontent among the 
Cubans, notwithstanding that 
the latter are naturally very 
grateful to the American govern¬ 
ment. 


The following form of expression may be treated as an 
elliptical form of that just illustrated: 


Perdieron cuanto tenian, por lo 
ambiciosos. (Here que eran 
is understood after ambiciosos). 


They lost all they had, because of 
their too great ambition (or, 
because of their being too 
ambitious). 


55. Other Uses of ELLO. - This neuter is often used: 

1. In the sense of el lieclio, the {act , to emphatically 
introduce a statement of an actual fact, with the implication 
that, so long as the statement is correct, it matters little 
what the causes of or the reasons for the existence of the 
fact in question are. 




§18 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


39 


No se lo que paso entre los dos. 
Ello es que, cuando se sepa- 
raron, ambos lloraban. 

'''‘Elio es que hay animales muy 
cientificos.” 


I do not know what passed be¬ 
tween the two. The tact is that, 
when they separated, they were 
both weeping. 

“The fact is, there are some very 
scientific animals.” 


2. In the sense of realmente, en efecto, really, indeed, 
in which case it is of the nature of an adverb. 


Elio, es imposible hacer otra 
cosa. 

"'Elio, hay cuentos desgracia- 
dos.” 


Truly, it is impossible to do other¬ 
wise. 

“Indeed, there are some unfortu¬ 
nate stories.” 


Hence, the emphatic expressions ello si, most certainly; 
ello no, by no means, not at all, which are often heard in 
some Spanish-speaking countries, and occasionally met with 
in print. 

Note. —Some uses of aquello, eso, and lo, not mentioned in this 
section, will be treated in connection with demonstrative adjectives. 




• , . J 





I 

' 






































, 










■ 


















c 
































* 























- 





























SPANISH GRAMMAR 

(PART 4) 


THE SUBSTANTIVE-(continued) 


NON-NEUTER PERSONAL PRONOUNS 


PLURAL FORMS USED WITH REFERENCE TO ONE PERSON 
1. Nosotros Instead of Yo. — In Spanish, as in Eng¬ 
lish, a writer often refers to himself by the plural pronoun 
nosotros, we (always in the masculine form, even if the 
writer is a woman) instead of yo, I. This fictitious plurali- 
zation, by which the writer appears as if writing in the name 
of others as their representative, rather than in his own 
name, is supposed to be a mark of modesty. Verbs, adjec¬ 
tives, and substantives referring to a person thus fictitiously 
represented by the pronoun nosotros , must all be put in the 
plural form. In English, on the contrary, the editorial we 
is constructed with the singular form of substantives, 
although it requires the plural of verbs. 


Nosotros, como redactores de 
este periodico, y enemigos de 
los monopolios, no podemos 
dar nuestra aprobacion & una 
ley tan arbitraria. 


We, as editor of this paper, and 
an enemy of monopolies, can¬ 
not give our approval to so arbi¬ 
trary a law. 


2. Nos.—This plural pronoun, which was the original 
form of nosotros , is of rare occurrence at the present time: 
it is mainly employed by official bodies or corporations, 
and, as a sign of fictitious plurality, by high dignitaries of 
the church or the court. In the latter case, in which nos 


For notice of copyright, see page immediately following the title page 
i 19 






2 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


19 


corresponds to the English royal zue, the verb should be put 
in the plural number; the adjective may be put in either 
number, although the plural is preferable. 


Nos, el concilio, a nuestros her- 
manos, salud. 

Nos, el rey, informados (or, in- 
formado) de los aeontecimientos 
que han tenido lugar en esa 
colonia, liaceinos saber que 
es nuestra voluntad. . . . 


We, the council, to our brethren, 
greeting. 

We, the king, being informed of 
the events that have taken place 
in that colony, make known 
that it is our wish. . . . 


Outside of official style, nos takes the place of nosotros in 
the familiar phrase entre nos, between you and me, between 
ourselves, and in some prayers. 


Entre nos le dire que Gonzalez 
no piensa pagarle. 

Venga a nos el tu reino. 


Between you and me, I will tell 
you that Gonzalez does not in¬ 
tend to pay you. 

Thy kingdom come (to us). 


In republican countries, a public officer generally refers to 
himself in the third person, by using either his name 
followed by his official title, or that title alone. 


El presidente de la Republica Ar¬ 
gentina, en uso de las facul- 
tades que le confrere la Consti- 
tucion, deereta: .... 

Manuel Murillo, presidente de los 
Estados Unidos de Colombia, 
hace saber: .... 

Occasionally, a functionary, 
or his title instead of yo, plac 
singular. 

Manuel Murillo, presidente de 
hago saber:.... 


The president of the Argentine 
Republic, in the exercise of the 
power conferred upon him by 
the Constitution, decrees: .... 

Manuel Murillo, president of the 
United States of Colombia, 
makes known: .... 

although employing his name 
js the verb in the first person 

los Estados Unidos de Colombia, 


This construction, although authorized by some good 
writers, is neither logical nor elegant. If, however, the 
sentence is introduced by yo, the first person of the verb is, 
and should be, used. 

Yo, Manuel Murillo, presidente de los Estados Unidos de Colombia, 
hago saber: .... 











§19 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


3 


3. Vos.— This was the original form of vosotros, but is 
now employed in formal and elevated style —as in prayers, 
and in speaking or writing to a high dignitary —with refer¬ 
ence to one person. Till not long ago, it was the customary 
form of polite address, as usted is today. Vos has the pecu¬ 
liarity that, although the verb relating to it must be placed 
in the plural, thus agreeing with the form of the pronoun, 
the adjective is invariably placed in the singular, thus agree-, 
ing with the real number of the pronoun. 

The declension of vos is the same as that of vosotros , except 
that the nominative and the prepositional case are both vos. 


Vos, senor gobernador, liabeis 
sido generoso sin ser debit, 
y jus to sin ser severo. 

Vos sabeis, senora, cu&nto pla¬ 
cer tengo y he tenido siempre 
en serviros. 


You, honorable governor, have 
been generous without being 
weak, and just without being 
severe. 

You know, madam, how much 
pleasure I take and have always 
taken in serving you. 


THE DATIVE AND THE DATIVE CASE 

4. The dative of a verb is a substantive or substantive 
phrase denoting the thing (persons included) which, without 
being the direct object (accusative) of the verb, is neverthe¬ 
less affected by the meaning of the verb: as the thing to 
which something is conveyed, transmitted, or applied, from 
which something is taken, or for which, in behalf or to the 
detriment of which, something is done. 

5. The dative is, as a rule, preceded by the preposi¬ 
tion a, to, with which it forms a dative prepositional 
phrase. With some verbs, a phrase of this kind can be 
literally rendered, to being used in English as the equiva¬ 
lent of the Spanish d; although, if the verb is transitive and 
its accusative is expressed, the dative may in English be 
placed before the accusative, without any preposition. The 
latter construction is not permissible in Spanish: the prepo¬ 
sition should not be omitted, whether the dative precedes or 
follows the accusative. 




4 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§19 


Escribire a Juan. 

iHablo usted a su padre? 

Hemos enviado diez barriles de 
naranjas a Manuel Gonzalez e 
Hijos. 

Manana remitire a don Pedro un 
cheque por esa suma. 

&A quien ha comunicado usted 
la noticia? 

<:Que dijo usted al nino? 

De dos vueltas mas a ese tornillo. 

Agregue esto a su list a. 


I shall write to John. 

Did you speak to your father? 

We have sent ten barrels of 
oranges to Manuel Gonzalez 
and Sons. 

Tomorrow I will send Mr. Peter a 
check for that amount. 

To whom have you communicated 
the news? 

What did you say to the child? 

Give two more turns to that 
screw. 

Add this to your list. 


6. There are verbs, however, in which the dative relation 
indicated in Spanish by a must be indicated in English by a 
different preposition: as for or from , to indicate, respectively, 
the thing for which something is done or from which some¬ 
thing is taken. The student should bear in mind that (with the 
exception of a few cases in which para is employed) no other 
preposition than a is used with the dative, and that, there¬ 
fore, when in English such prepositions as for, fronton occur 
before a substantive whose relation to the verb is of the kind 
referred to in Art. 4, they should not be translated literally; 
that is, for by por or para , from by de , or on by sobre. Thus, 
to buy from is rendered by comprar a, not by comprar de, 
and to put a hat on a person is rendered by poner un sombrero 
a una persona , not sobre una persona. No fixed rules can 
be given on this subject, as the relations included under the 
appellation of dative are exceedingly numerous and of many 
sorts, and, although a general idea of their nature can be 
given, it is impossible to formulate them into a short and 
precise statement that will serve as an absolutely certain 
criterion. The correspondence of prepositions in the follow¬ 
ing examples should be carefully noted: 


He comprado dos maquinas de 
vapor a Pardo y Compania. 

Los ladroues hurtaron un anillo 
de diamantes a mihija. 

Voy a hacer una diligencia al 
doctor Lopez. 


I have bought two steam engines 
from Pardo and Company. 

The burglars stole a diamond ring 
from my daughter. 

I am going to do an errand for 
Doctor Lopez. 




§ 19 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


5 


I worked for that firm about two 
years. 

It is necessary to put a new wheel 
on the carriage. 

We intend to put a fence around 
our property. 

How many cars did you take off 
the train when you arrived at 
the foot of the incline? 

We cannot take even one cent 
more off our prices. 

To take away from the poor to 
give to the rich — such is our 
millionaires’ maxim. 

It' 

7 . The accusative and the dative of a verb do not always 
correspond in the two languages: there are verbs that in 
Spanish take as datives the substantives that their respective 
English equivalents take as accusatives. The verb robar, 
to rob , for instance, takes the name of the person robbed as its 
dative, and the name of the thing of which the person is 
robbed as its accusative. The verbs quitar, to deprive; 
pedir, to ask (for something); not! near, to notify; pregun- 
tar, to ask (as a question); agradecer, to thank; inspirar, 
to inspire (with some kind of feeling); fiar, to trust (for 
money), and some others, are similarly constructed. In the 
following examples, the accusative is printed in Italic; the 
dative phrase, in bold type: 


Trabaje a esa firma como dos 
anos. 

Es preciso poner una nueva 
rueda al coche. 

Peusamos poner una cerca a 
nuestra finca. 

dCuantos carros quitaron ustedes 
al tren cuando llegaron al pie 
de la pendiente? 

No podemos quitar ni un centavo 
mas a nuestros precios. 

Quitar a los pobres para dar a 
Los ricos: tal es la maxima de 
nuestros millonarios. 


Los salteadores robaron al via- 
jero cuanto tenia. 

Los ingleses quitaron la inde- 
pendencia a las repiiblicas 
africanas. 

El remordimiento quita el sosiego 

al criminal. 

Hagame el favor de pedir un 
vaso de agua al criado. 

El juez notified al reo el fallo 
del jurado. 

Pregunte a ese agente de 
policia donde queda la estacion 
del ferrocarril. 


The highwaymen robbed the trav¬ 
eler of all he had. 

The English deprived the African 
republics of their independence, 

Remorse deprives the criminal of 
peace of mind. 

Do me the favor to ask the ser¬ 
vant for a glass of water. 

The judge notified the culprit of 
the jury’s verdict. 

Ask that policeman where the 
railroad station is. 




6 SPANISH GRAMMAR §19 


La pobre cautiva inspir<5 compa- 
sidn a sus yerdugos. 

No podemos fiar mas generos a 

ese liombre. 


The poor captive inspired her exe¬ 
cutioners with pity. 

We cannot trust that man for any 
more goods. 


8. The dative is occasionally preceded by para, for . 
Compre unos libros para mi hi jo. | I bought some books for my son. 


The use of d instead of para would be proper in this case, 
although then the meaning of the sentence would be slightly 
changed: para indicates the mere fact that the speaker 
bought some books for his son, without any further implica¬ 
tion; while a would indicate a certain interest taken by the 
speaker in the performance of the action —as if he had 
bought the books of his own accord and intended them as a 
present. The difference will be better understood by com¬ 
paring the translation of the Spanish sentence given above 
with that of the following, in which para is replaced by a: 

Compre unos libros a mi hijo. | I bought my son some books. 

9. The Dative Case as a Substitute for a Dative 
Prepositional Phrase. — When the object of the preposi¬ 
tion in a dative prepositional phrase would be the preposi¬ 
tional case of a personal pronoun, the dative case is used 
instead of the phrase. We say would be , because, with the 
exception of usted, the prepositional cases are seldom used 
by themselves as datives. 

The dative cases and the dative prepositional phrases 
whose places they take are given below: 

me, used instead of a mi 

te, used instead of a ti 

le , used instead of d el (a usted ) 

le, la, used instead of a ella {a usted) 

nos, used instead of a nosotros, a nosotras, a nds 

os, used instead of a vosotros, a vosotras, a vos 

les , used instead of a ellos, a ellas (a ustedes) 

As stated in Part 2, le and la are equally proper and equally 
common as dative cases of ella; the employment of one or 
the other is merely a matter of taste, although la is perhaps 
a little more formal and better adapted to elevated style. 




19 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


7 


Le escribire {not, Escribire a H) 
manana. 

&Les hablo usted? {not, ,< Habib 
usted d ellos?) 

Nos comunicaron la noticia {not, 
Comunicaron la noticia a noso- 
tros). 

Cuando la senorita Mercedes en- 
tro, yo le ofreci (or, la ofreci) mi 
asiento. 

Lo que os dije {not, Lo que dije 
a vosotros) es cierto. 

,;Quien te dio la vida? {not, dQuien 
did la vida d ti?) 

Mi socio no me ha enviado la 
carta de que usted habla. 

^Que debo hacer ahora con este 
tornillo? — Dele otra vuelta. 

<;Ha compuesto usted mis zapa- 
tos ?- Les he puesto sue las 
nuevas, pero aun tengo que po- 
ner/^i tacones. 

<;Que ha comprado usted a Toral 
Hermanos? — Les he comprado 
diez mil sombreros de Panama 
y como quinientos racimos de 
platanos. 

Los ladrones nos hurtaron cuanto 
teniamos. 

Aun no he podido conseguir/<? una 
colocacion. 

Siento mucho, hijo mio, no poder 
dar te lo que me pides. 

Senora, le agradezco mucho su 
bondadosa invitacion. 


I shall write to him tomorrow. 

Did you speak to them? 

They communicated the news to 
us. 

When Miss Mercedes came in, I 
offered her my seat. 

What I told you is true. 

Who gave life to thee? 

My partner has not sent me the 
letter of which you speak. 

What must I do now with this 
screw? — Give it another turn. 

Have you repaired my shoes? —I 
have put new soles on them, but 
I have yet to put heels on them. 

What have you bought from Toral 
Brothers? — I have bought from 
them ten thousand Panama hats, 
and about five hundred bunches 
of bananas. 

The burglars stole (from us) every¬ 
thing we had. 

I have not yet been able to pro¬ 
cure you a situation. 

I regret very much, my son, not 
to be able to give you what you 
ask me for. 

Madam, I thank you very much 
for your kind invitation. 


10 . Redundant Dative Constructions. —The dative 
case is often used in conjunction with a dative prepositional 
phrase. This form of expression is called a redundant 
form or construction. When the dative in the preposi¬ 
tional phrase is the prepositional case of a personal pronoun, 
the redundant construction generally serves to make the 
sentence either emphatic or clear. 



8 

.jComo osas decir me eso a mi? 

£ A nosotros vienes a pedirwc^ 
favores, despues de haber arrui- 
nado nuestra reputacion? 

Aqui estuvieron el senor Arose- 
raena y su hija: a el le hable, 
pero a ella no pude hablar le. 

Les enviare “El Heraldo” a 
ustedes, y “El Mundo” a 
ellos. 


§19 

How darest thou say that to me? 
[Emphatic .] 

You come to ask tis [ emphatic ] 
for favors, after having ruined 
our reputation? 

Mr. Arosemena and his daughter 
were here. I spoke to him, but 
could not speak to her. 

I will send “The Herald’’ to you, 
and‘“The World’’ to them. 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


In the last two examples, the prepositional phrases d el, 
d ella, a ustedes, a ellos, are evidently indispensable, as without 
them the sentences would not be clear. Similarly, if a 
person, speaking- to another about a third person, says, Ayer 
le envie un recado, it may not be clear whether the speaker 
means, I sent you a message yesterday, or, / sent him a 
message yesterday, or, I sent her a message yesterday. To 
plainly convey the first meaning', he should say, Ayer le envie 
un recado a usted; to convey the second meaning', Ayer le 
envie un recado a el; and to convey the third meaning, Ayer 
le envie un recado a ella. 

Only the dative cases le, la, les can give rise to ambiguity, 
as each of them is the case both of a pronoun {usted) of the 
second and of one of the third person, while le can, besides, 
be the dative case of either el or ella. These are, therefore, 
the only cases with which redundant constructions must be 
used for clearness. 


11. The redundant form is indispensable when the dative 
is a personal pronoun modified by a word or phrase. All 
modifiers must be added to the prepositional case of the 
pronoun, the dative case not-admitting any. 


La firma de Tamayo y Peralta 
me envio una circular a mi 

tambien. 

A vosotros tampoco os otor- 
garan ese privilegio. 
jPedirw^ dinero a mi, que 

nunca lo lie tenido! 


The firm of Tamayo and Peralta 
sent me also a circular. 

They will not grant that privilege 
to you either. 

To ask me for money —me, who 
have never had any! 




§19 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


9 


Le dieron veneno d el, que eTa They gave poison to him, who was 
la gloria de Ateiias. the glory of Athens (or, They 

gave him poison — him, who was 
I the glory of Athens) . 

12. Redundant forms are very common in familiar style, 
even where neither clearness nor emphasis requires them 
(see Part 2). The dative may be a personal pronoun or 
any other substantive: in the former case, the prepositional 
phrase is really superfluous; in the latter case, the dative 
case is equally unnecessary. The superfluous phrases and 
dative cases in the following examples are enclosed in 
brackets: 


Le suplico [a usted ] que me 
perdone. 

Esta manana [/ e J mande unas 
fiores d la senorita Maria. 

\A mi\ me dijeron que la firma 
habia quebrado. 

\_Le\ preguntdmos por usted a 
su amigo. 

No se si lo que nos han dicho \_d 
nosotros ] es cierto. 

quien [/<*] esta usted escri- 
biendo? — \_Le~\ estoy eseribiendo 
a mi herniano. 

ti\ te parece buena esta 
accion? 


I request you to excuse me. 

I sent Miss Mary some flowers this 
morning. 

They told me that the firm had 
failed. 

We asked your friend for you. 

I do not know whether what they 
have told us is true. 

To whom are you writing? —I am 
writing to my brother. 

Does this action seem good to 
thee? 


13 . The Prepositional Case Used by Itself as 
Dative. — It was stated in Art. 9 that the prepositional case is 
seldom used by itself as a dative. The following sentences, 
although correct from a purely grammatical point of view, 
are so unusual, and sound so awkward, that no Spanish¬ 
speaking person would ever employ them (except, perhaps, 
in poetry): 


Hablo a mi del asunto. 

El ruido quito el sueno a mi. 

El capitan pregunto d nosotros por 
usted. 

Conseguire d ti una colocacion. 


He spoke to me about the matter. 
The noise deprived me of sleep. 
The captain asked us for you. 

I shall procure you a situation. 





10 SPANISH GRAMMAR §19 


Instead of these, the following forms with the dative case 
are used: 

Me hablo del asunto. —El ruido me quitd el sueno.— El capitdn nos 
pregunto por listed. — Te conseguire una colocacidn. 

The most important exceptions to this rule are: 

1. Usted, which in many respects is treated like a noun 
rather than a pronoun, can be properly employed in the 
prepositional case as a dative, without being combined with 
the dative case. Where there is danger of ambiguity, either a 
redundant form or the phrase d usted alone should be substi¬ 
tuted for the case le. 


Ayer escribimos a usted. 

I El muchacho entrego la carta a 
ustedes? 


We wrote to you yesterday. 

Did the boy deliver the letter to 
you? 


2. The dative prepositional phrases d mi, a ella, etc. are 
often employed by themselves in answers, the verb being 


understood. The dative case 
by a verb expressed. 

IA quien dio usted el cheque? —^4 
ella. 

IA cudles estudiantes les man- 
daron premios de Scranton ?—A 
ti y d mi. 


must always be accompanied 

To whom did you give the check? 
— To her. 

To what students were prizes sent 
from Scranton ? — To you and to 
me. 


3. When datives of different persons refer to the same 
verb, and cannot be represented by one common dative case, 
the prepositional case is used alone as dative. 


El presidente did la orden a mi, 
no a ti. 

Usted no debe entregar la carta a 
ella, sino a ellos. 


The president gave the order to 
me, not to you. 

You must not deliver the letter to 
her, but to them. 


The following forms, however, are equally correct, and 
sometimes preferable, although not so logical: 

El presidente me did la orden a mi, no a ti. 

Usted no debe entregarle la carta a ella, sino a ellos. 

14. In a few other cases, the employment of the dative 
prepositional phrase without the dative case is sanctioned by 





§19 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


11 


usage, especially if the dative is a pronoun whose preposi¬ 
tional case is the same as the nominative. 


A vosotros toca defender las leyes. 

Debo a ellos la posicion que ahora 
ocupo. 


It belongs to you to defend the 
laws. 

I owe them the position I now 
occupy. 


Here, however, it would be equally proper to say, 

A vosotros os toca defender las leyes. 

Les debo a ellos la posicion que ahora ocupo. 


The special constructions mentioned in this article cannot 
be reduced to any rule; they belong to those niceties of the 
language that can be learned only after long practice and 
study. When there is any doubt as to what form to employ, 
the dative case should be preferred to the bare prepositional 
phrase; or the two may be combined in a redundant form, 
should such form be deemed necessary for either clearness 
or emphasis. 


15. Tlie Dative Case of Interest and the Jocose 
Dative Case. — The dative case of the first person (me , nos) 
often indicates a special interest taken by the speaker in the 
performance or non-performance of the action denoted by 
the verb to which the case is affixed. This dative case of 
interest, as it is called, is nearly always accompanied by 
another dative or dative case, or by an accusative; it may 
sometimes be rendered by for me , for us, but generally it 
cannot be translated at all. 


Hagaw/de un buen vestido k este 
nino. 

Deseo que usted me le entregue 
estos papeles a su padre. 

Don Samuel nos echo a perder el 
libro que le prestamos. 

Hemos dejado a nuestra hija en 
el colegio de la senora Diaz, 
donde no dudamos que nos la 
trataran bien. 

Mucho me temo que esa empresa 
se frustre. 


Make this child a good dress 
(for me). 

I wish you to deliver these papers 
to your father for me. 

Mr. Samuel spoiled the book we 
lent him. 

We have left our daughter at 
Mrs. Diaz’s college, where we 
have no doubt they will treat 
her well. 

I fear very much that that under¬ 
taking will fail. 




12 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§19 


Salud erne mucho a su senora y 
a sus hujas. 

Cante/zcs algo, senorita Mercedes. 

In all these examples, the 
might be omitted, although 
more forcibly their concern fo 
by the meaning of the verb, 
however, is restricted to the 
versation or light literature. 

Similar remarks apply to th 
is used either humorously or 
lent in English. 

Con que & usted me lo han tratado 
como rey, i no ? 

Ese oficial ha sido siempre muy 
insolente, pero ayer me le dio 
el general un regano que sin 
duda le hara cambiar de con- 
ducta. 


Give my best regards to your wife 
and daughters ( literally , Greet 
your wife and daughters very 
much for me). 

Sing something for us, Miss Mer¬ 
cedes. 

dative cases printed in Italic 
by them the speakers show 
r the persons or things affected 

The dative case of interest, 
familiar style of common con- 

e jocose dative case, which 
ironically, and has no equiva- 

And so you have been treated like 
a king, eh? 

That officer has always been very 
insolent, but yesterday the gen¬ 
eral gave him a scolding that 
no doubt will make him change 
his behavior. 


In these examples, me simply gives the expression a 
humorous or familiar tone: it might be omitted without 
altering the meaning of the sentences, but the omission 
would make them sound more formal and less forcible. 


16. Tlie Emphatic Dative Case. —Another very com¬ 
mon familiar use of the dative case is to indicate complete¬ 
ness, thoroughness, exaggeration, earnestness, and the like. 


Me lei todo el libro en una noche. 

Pensamos estudiar/zcu esta leccion 
con mucho cuidado. 

Nos comimos cuanto hallamos en 
el campamento del enemigo. 

Tu te lo sabes todo. 


I read the whole book in one 
night. 

We intend to study this lesson 
with great care. 

We ate all we found in the 
enemy’s camp. 

You know it all. [ Ironical .] 


More detailed explanations of this form of construction 
will be given in connection with reflexive verbs. 





§19 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


13 


17 . The Dative Case of Possession. — The dative case 
is employed with some verbs having- the name of a part of 
the body as their subject or accusative, to indicate the person 
whose body is referred to. The noun denoting the part of 
the body is preceded by either the definite or the indefinite 
article, according as there are one or more than one of those 
parts. Such combinations of the article with the dative case 
are rendered into English by means of a possessive adjec¬ 
tive (as the adjectives my, thy, your , etc. are called), or of 
a possessive case, as seen in the following examples: 


Me toco el hombro. 

Le rompieron una pierna. 

& Ann te duele la cabeza, amigo 
Sancho? 

El pulso me late muy aprisa. 

Voy a hacer;«£ cortar el pelo. 

El medico opina que sera necesa- 
rio amputar/^ la mano a listed. 

Una bala de canon le llevo la 
cabeza al capitan. 

The following constructions 

La influenza me principio con una 
tos muy fuerte. 

<;Cuando le empezd la neumonia 
a su amigo. 

Aun no me ha pasado la fiebre. 

Don Carlos me llamo la atencion 
k ese error. 

Eso me acaba de venir a la me- 
moria. 


He touched my shoulder ( or , He 
touched me on the shoulder). 

They broke one of his legs. 

Does thy head still ache, friend 
Sancho? 

My pulse beats very fast. 

I am going to have my hair cut. 

The physician is of the opinion 
that it will be necessary to am¬ 
putate your hand. 

A cannon ball knocked off the cap¬ 
tain’s head. 

are of a similar character: 

My influenza began with a very 
severe cough. 

When did your friend’s pneu¬ 
monia begin? 

My fever has not yet passed away. 

Mr. Charles called my attention 
to that error. 

That has just come to my memory. 


18 . Verbs Whose Subject in English Is Their 
Dative in Spanish. —The verb gustar, to like , may be 
taken as the type of this class of verbs. In the English 
sentence, / like those books , the pronoun / is the subject, 
and those books is the accusative. The corresponding Spanish 
sentence is, Me gustan esos libros , in which esos libi-os, 
those books, is the subject, while / is represented by the 




14 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


19 


dative case me. As other examples, may be mentioned the 
verbs cliocar, to dislike; faltar, to lack, and sobrar, to 
have in excess. These verbs always require the dative case, 
whether alone or in a redundant construction. It must be 
remembered that the substantive or phrase rendering the 
accusative of the English verb is the subject of the Spanish 
verb, and that, therefore, the latter must agree with it in 
person and number. 

No nos gust an las costumbres de 
Espana. 

^Le gustan a listed las novelas 
francesas? 

Se que te choca viajar en burro, 
pero aqui es imposible conse- 
guir caballos. 

A1 general Weyler le sobraba 
valor, pero le faltaba diplo- 
macia. 


We do not like the customs of 
Spain. 

Do you like the French novels? 

1 know that you dislike to travel 
on a donkey, but it is impossible 
to procure horses here. 

General Weyler had more than 
enough courage, but he lacked 
diplomacy. 


19 . The Dative and the Dative Case With Ser. 
The verb ser, to be , often takes a dative or a dative case. 
The forms of construction in which this occurs are more 
easily illustrated than described. When the dative is not a 
personal pronoun, it is, as a rule, combined with the dative 
case in a redundant form. The following examples will give 
a general idea of the class of sentences to which this con¬ 
struction is applicable: 


Eso nos sen a imposible. 

A don Rambn le ha sido muy 
dificil vender sus generos de 
lino. 

La ciudad en que uno nace 
siempre le es querida. 

Dice Tacito que a Neron no pare- 
cia ser le natural la crueldad. 

Nos es grato manifestar a ustedes 
que los articulos que nos en- 
viaron llegaron a debido tiempo 
y sin averia alguna. 


That would be impossible for us. 

It has been very difficult for Mr. 
Ramon to sell his linen goods. 

The city where one is born is 
always dear to one. 

Tacitus says that cruelty did not 
seem to be natural with Nero. 

It gives us pleasure ( literally , 
It is pleasing to us) to inform 
you that the articles you sent 
arrived in due time and without 
any damage whatever. 




19 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


15 


Me es muy penoso comunicar a 
usted esta triste noticia. 

Tantas revoluciones no pueden 
dejar de series perjudiciales a 
los paises de Sud-America. 


It is very painful for me to com¬ 
municate this sad news to you. 

So many revolutions cannot fail 
to be prejudicial to the coun¬ 
tries of South America. 


THE ACCUSATIVE AND THE ACCUSATIVE CASE 
20. Distinction Between the Accusative and the 
Accusative Case.— The following; distinction will hereafter 
be made for convenience: a substantive used as the accusa¬ 
tive of a verb, and not represented by the accusative case of 
a personal pronoun, will be referred to simply as an accusative , 
or an accusative substantive , while the expression accusative 
case will be applied to that case of a personal pronoun which 
represents an accusative substantive. 

Yo tengo un libro. I have a book. 

Yo to tengo. I have it. 


In the first example, tengo is followed by the accusative 
libro , and in the second, tengo is preceded by the accusa¬ 
tive case lo. 

A phrase formed by the preposition a and an accusative 
will be called an accusative prepositional phrase. 

2 1. Redundant Accusative Constructions. — Redun¬ 
dant forms with accusatives and accusative cases follow the 
same rules that apply to redundant dative constructions. 
There is, however, one difference, which must be carefully 
observed; and that is, that the accusative case never pre¬ 
cedes the accusative substantive which it represents, unless 
the latter is the prepositional case of a personal pronoun: if 
the accusative is any other substantive, it must be expressed 
first, and then reproduced by the accusative case. 


Tengo el libro. 

El libro lo tengo. 
Conozco a esa senora. 

A esa senora la conozco. 


I have the book. 

I know that lady. 


In these examples, it would not be permissible to say, 
JjO tengo el libro, nor, La conozco a esa senora. With 







16 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


19 


a prepositional case as accusative, however, either construc¬ 
tion is correct. 


A el no lo vi ayer, pero a ella 
la vi. 

No lo vi a el ayer, pero la vi a 
ella. 


I did not see him yesterday, but I 
saw her. 


The following examples will further illustrate the use of 
the accusative and the accusative case: 


Le mataron ( not , Mataron a el). 
(Art. 9.) 

#,Las vio usted? {not, ^Vio usted a 
el las?) (Art. 9.) 

Nos invitaron a comer {not, Invi- 
taron a nosolros a comer). 
(Art. 9.) 

Se eso muy bien. 1 

Eso lo se muy bien. / 

He perdido cuanto tenia. 1 

Cuanto tenia lo he perdido. J 

No comprendo lo que usted dice. 1 
Lo que usted dice no lo com- | 

prendo. J 

Compramos estos generos en un 
almacen. 

Estos generos los compramos 
en un almacen. 

Lo envenenaron a el, que era 
la gloria de Atenas. 
(Art. lO.) 

Elios me han calumniado a mi, 
que tanto lie lieclio por 
ellos. (Art. lO.) 

Ayer vi a usted en el teatro. 
(Art. 13, 1.) 

lk quien llaman? —A mi. (Art. 
13, 2.) 

El presidente nombro d ini, no' 
a ti. 

El presidente me nombro d mi, 
no a ti. (Art. 13, 3.) 

A vosotros hara {or, os hara) la 
posteridad responsables. (Art. 

Id.) 


They killed him. 

Did you see them? 

They invited us to dine. 

I know that very well. 

I have lost all I had. 

I do not understand what you say. 

We bought these goods in a store. 

They poisoned him, who was the 
glory of Athens. 

They have slandered me, who 
have done so much for them. 

I saw you in the theater yester¬ 
day. 

Whom are they calling? —Me. 

The president appointed me, not 
you. 

You, will posterity hold responsi¬ 
ble. 








§19 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


17 


22. The Accusative Case of Generalization. —The 
accusative case is very often employed with reference to a 
preceding substantive, not to indicate the object itself 
denoted by the substantive, but the whole class to which 
that object belongs; it is, therefore, equivalent to the sub¬ 
stantive taken in its most general signification. When this 
case is thus employed, it may be called the accusative case 
of generalization: it is then variously rendered by some, 
any, one, or ones, while in some special constructions it is not 
translated at all. 


Es inutil pedir dinero a ese senor, 
pues nunca lo tiene. 

Si usted desea comprar maquinas 
de coser , nosotros las vendemos 
muy buenas. 

jQue vino tan excelente! Nunca 
lo he tornado mejor. 

El gobierno tiene muchos ele- 
mentos de guerra , mientras que 
los rebeldes no los tienen. 

.iCompra usted sombreros de Pa¬ 
nama?— Si, senor, los compro. 


It is useless to ask that gentleman 
for money, for he never has any. 

If you wish to buy sewing ma¬ 
chines, we sell very good ones. 

What excellent wine! I have never 
taken any better. 

The government has many war 
elements, while the rebels have 
not any. 

Do you buy Panama hats? —Yes, 
sir, 1 do. 


REFLEXIVE CONSTRUCTIONS 

23. A reflexive construction is the form taken by a 
sentence in which an oblique case of a personal pronoun 
refers to or represents the same thing (persons included) as 
the subject of the verb. When the oblique pronominal case 
does not refer to the same thing as the subject of the verb, 
the construction is called non-reflexive. The oblique case 
of a pronoun is said to be used reflexively or non-reflex- 
ively, according as the construction in which it occurs is 
reflexive or non-reflexive. 

The personal pronouns of the first and of the second person 
(usted excepted) have no special reflexive forms: me, nos, 
te , os are used both reflexively and non-reflexively. When 
employed in reflexive constructions, these cases are rendered 
by the English compound forms myself, ourselves . thyself, 
yourselves, respectively. 




18 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


19 


Accusative Reflexive Construction 


Yo me afeito. 

Nos hemos dedicado al ejercicio 
de nuestra profesion. 

Si no te reformas, pronto te arrui- 
naras. 

Yo no me creo competente para 
eso. 

Hemos comprado armas para pro- 
teger nos de los ladrones. 

Estudiafe, y aprende a conocer te. 

Me he presentado al general, y 
me le he ofrecido como guia. 

Dative Reflex 

Ponte el sombrero. 

Vosotros os habeis granjeado el 
respetoyla admiracion de vues- 
tros enemigos. 

Dice que nos hemos causado mu- 
chas perdidas. 

Me he quebrado una pierna. 
(Art. 17.) 

Voy a comprarw^ un nuevo traje. 


I shave myself. 

We have devoted ourselves to the 
practice of our profession. 

If you do not reform (yourself), 
you will soon ruin yourself. 

I do not believe myself competent 
for that. 

We have bought weapons to pro¬ 
tect ourselves from robbers. 

Study thyself , and learn to know 
thyself. 

I have presented myself to the 
general, and offered myself to 
him as a guide. 

e Construction 

Put your hat on (yourself). 

You have won for yourselves the 
respect and admiration of your 
enemies. 

He says we have caused ourselves 
many losses. 

I have broken one of my legs. 

I am going to buy a new dress for 
myself. 


24. When the prepositional case is used reflexively, it is 
sometimes rendered by a compound form, sometimes by a 
simple form, of the corresponding English pronoun. 


He alquiladoun coche para usted, 
y uno para mi. 

Cuando vengas, trae a tu hermano 
contigo. 

Piensa menos en ti, y mas en tus 
semejantes. 

Pronto vereis los resultados del 
odio contra vosotros que habeis 
despertado en el corazon de 
vuestros esclavos. 

,;Teneis dinero con vosotros? 


I have hired a carriage for you, 
and one for myself. 

When you come, bring your 
brother with you. 

Think less about thyself, and 
more about thy fellow beings. 

You shall soon see the results of 
the hatred that you have 
aroused against you in the 
hearts of your slaves. 

Have you any money with you? 


25. The Reflexive Form Se. — In the reflexive con¬ 
struction, the accusative and the dative case of usted and of 





§19 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


19 


the personal pronouns of the third person take the form se; 
the prepositional case, the form si. Both of these forms 
apply to pronouns of all numbers and genders. For short¬ 
ness, se is often referred to as being itself a pronoun, having 
the prepositional case si; although, properly speaking, se and 
si are both cases of the pronouns el, ell a , ellos, ellas , usted, 
and ustedes. After the preposition con , the form sigo , joined 
to the preposition to form one word with it, takes the place 
of si: thus, consigo instead of con si. 


Accusative Reflexive Construction With Se 


Caton se mato en Africa. 

Los espanoles se creian inven- 
cibles, como se creen ahora los 
americanos. 

Los dos jovenes se sacrificaron por 
su patria. 

No se engane usted, amigo mio. 

iComo se llama usted? 

El preso, en su desesperacion, se 
arrojo al mar. 

Los gobernantes se exponen a la 
censura del publico. 

Ustedes se arruinaran en esa 
empresa. 

Ellos 5£tratan muy bien. 


Cato killed himself in Africa. 

The Spaniards believed them¬ 
selves invincible, as the Ameri¬ 
cans do now. 

The two young men sacrificed 
themselves for their country. 

Do not deceive yourself, my dear 
friend. 

What is your name? ( literally , 
What do you call yourself?) 

The prisoner, in his despair, 
threw himself into the sea. 

Rulers expose themselves to the 
censure of the public. 

You will ruin yourselves in that 
enterprise. 

They treat themselves very well. 


Dative Reflexive Construction With Se 


Los generales africanos se han 
ganado la estimacion del mundo 
civilizado. 

El pobre loco pasa la mayor parte 
del tiempo escribiendo^ cartas 
y hablandosi?. 

Ponga-s^ el sombrero, y venga 
conmigo. 

Mis amigos se consiguieron colo- 
caciones muy buenas. 

Hay personas ricas que se niegan 
aun cosas que son absoluta- 
mente indispensables. 


The African generals have won 
for themselves the esteem of the 
civilized world. 

The poor lunatic spends the 
greater part of his time writing 
letters to himself and talking to 
himself. 

Put your hat on (yourself), and 
come with me. 

My friends procured very good 
situations for themselves. 

There are rich persons who deny 
themselves even things that are 
absolutely indispensable. 




20 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§19 


Prepositional Reflexive Construction With Si 

Buy a ticket for me and one for 
yourself. 

Have you any money with you? 
The capitalists have aroused 
against themselves the hatred 
of the working men. 

He did it by himself and for 
himself. 

The ladies were bringing only one 
servant with them. 

Mr. Pardo was sitting in his 
office, with a newspaper before 
him. 

26. The Reciprocal Construction.—When the indi¬ 
viduals represented by a plural subject or by several subjects 
of one verb, perform on one another the action indicated by 
the verb, or are each affected by the action of the others, 
the sentence is called a reciprocal construction, and the 
oblique cases of the pronouns that refer to the subject or 
subjects of the verb are said to be used reciprocally. It 
will readily be seen that the reciprocal construction is but a 
special case of the reflexive. 

In the reciprocal construction, the same cases of the per¬ 
sonal pronouns are used as in other reflexive constructions, 
but, instead of being rendered by the compound forms of the 
corresponding English pronouns, they are translated by the 
expressions each other , o?ie another , to each other , to one 
another , etc. When, however, the verb has several plural 
subjects, it may be necessary to give the English sentence a 
somewhat different turn from the Spanish, in order to avoid 
ambiguity. An instance of this kind is afforded by the 
fourth of the examples that follow: 


Compre un boleto para nu y otro 
para si. 

^Tiene usted dinero consigo? 

Los capitalistas han despertado 
contra si el odio de los obreros. 

Lo hizo por si y para si. 

Solo un criado traian las senoras 
consigo. 

El senor Pardo estaba sentado en 
su oficina, con un periodico 
delante de si. 


Don Manuel y yo no nos conoce- 
mos. 

Se que tu y ella os am&is. 

Usted y su madre se parecen. 


Mr. Manuel and I are not ac¬ 
quainted with each other ( liter¬ 
ally , do not know each other). 

I know that thou and she love 
each other. 

You and your mother resemble 
each other. 




§19 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


21 


Los alemanes y los franceses se 
odian. 

El y yo no nos hablamos. 

Pareee que esas dos firmas no se 
flan. (Art. 7.) 

Los dos antagonistas se miraron* 
sin hablars^. 


The Germans hate the French, 
and the French the Germans. 

He and I do not speak to each 
other. 

It seems that those two firms do 
not trust each other. 

The two antagonists looked at 
each other without speaking 
(to each other). 


27. Mismo. — In the redundant form of the reflexive 
construction, the adjective mismo (feminine, misma; plural, 
mismos , mismas) , which means same, self., is generally added to 
the prepositional case of the pronoun. In accusative reflexive 
constructions having a singular subject, the redundant form 
is not considered necessary, and is employed merely for 
emphasis or for rhetorical effect. Thus, in the following 
examples, either form can be used at pleasure: 

Know thyself. 

The culprit poisoned himself. 


Conocefe. 

Condcefe a ti mismo. 

El reo se enveneno. 

El reo se enveneno a si mismo. 


With the dative, however, the redundant form is very often 


required by usage, although, 
grammatically necessary. 

Se habla a si mismo. 

Preguntestf, senora, a si misma si 
eso es justo. 


strictly speaking, it is not 

He speaks to himself. 

Ask yourself, madam, whether 
that is just. 


No general rule can be given on this subject, there being 
cases in which the non-redundant form is as common, and 
sounds as natural, as the redundant. 


“^Es posible?” me dije. 

“iEs posible?” me dije a mi 
mismo. 


‘‘Is it possible?” said I to myself. 


When in doubt, the student should employ the dative 
redundant form, which is always proper and never sounds 


*Mirar is a transitive verb, taking as an accusative the substantive 
that in English serves as the object of the preposition at. 







22 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


19 


unusual, while there are cases in which the non-redundant 
form would seem awkward. 


28. The adjective mismo is also joined to the prepositional 
cases preceded by other prepositions than a ; that is, when 
these cases are not used redundantly. It is not then abso¬ 
lutely necessary, but it sometimes adds emphasis, sometimes 
smoothness, to the expression. It may be well for the 
student to learn that the phrase si mismo (with the appro¬ 
priate inflections of the adjective mismo for number and 
gender) means either himself, itself , themselves , yourself , your¬ 
selves , or oneself , according to the person and number of the 
substantive to which it refers. Similarly, mi mismo , ti 
mismo , etc., mean myself , thyself , etc. 


La accidn en si misma es perfecta- 
mente inocente. 

Ese argumento estd en contra¬ 
diction consigo mismo. 

Creo que en esto estd el emperador 
obrando contra si mismo. 

Puedes huir de los demds, pero 
nunca de ti mismo. 

La orden se aplica tanto d nues- 
tros empleados como d nosotros 
mismo s. 


The action in itself is perfectly 
innocent. 

That argument is in contradic¬ 
tion with itself. 

I think that in this the emperor is 
acting against himself. 

Thou mayest flee from others, 
but never from thyself. 

The order applies as much to our 
employes as to ourselves. 


29. Special Redundant Forms Used tor Clearness 
In Reciprocal and Other Reflexive Constructions. 
It is often necessary to make use of a redundant form in 
order to distinguish a reciprocal construction from one 
which, being also reflexive, is not reciprocal. For instance, 
the sentence, Elios se arnan, may mean either, They love each 
other, or, They love themselves. The latter meaning 
would be made clear by adding one of the redundant prepo¬ 
sitional phrases d si , d si mismos. The former meaning is 
conveyed by means of the substantives uno, one, and otro, 
other , another , with the appropriate forms for gender and 
number, and with the preposition d between them. Thus, 
if the subject ellos refers to two persons, we should say, 
Elios se aman uno a otro; if to more than two persons, the 



§19 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


23 


expression linos d otros should be employed. The definite 
article may be prefixed to each of the substantives uno and 
otro, although it is not strictly necessary. 

The second person plural of the imperative, when followed 
by the case os, which may be either dative or accusative, 
loses its final d , as will be observed in the first of the 
examples given below. 

I Amaos nnos d otros (or, los unos 
a los otros). 

A mac.? a vosotros mismos. 

Se desprecian unos a otros. 

Se desprecian a si mismos. 

Los penitentes se daban fuertes 
golpes unos a otros. 

Los penitentes se daban fuertes 
golpes a si mismos. 

Tales,.mujeres siempre se aborre- 
cen unas a otras, y aun se abo- 
rrecen a si mismas. 

<;Cuando aprenderemos a ver nos 
a nosotros mismos como los 
demas nos ven? 

30. Reciprocal Construction Without Either the 
Accusative or the Dative Case.— When a verb refers to 
several individuals acting on or for one another, but is one 
of those verbs that do not take a dative or an accusative, 
the reciprocal construction takes one of the forms illustrated 
in the following sentences, in which either the preposition 
entre, between, among, followed by the prepositional case of a 
pronoun, or the substantives uno and otro , connected by the 
preposition that the verb usually takes, is used. It should 
be particularly observed that this preposition is always 
placed between the substantives uno and otro, and never 
before them, as in the English expressions with each other , 
for one another, etc. The literal renderings of the Spanish 
phrases uno contra otro , uno con otro , and the like, are one 
against the other, one with the other, etc. 

Luchaban el uno contra el otro. 1 I They were struggling with each 
Luchaban entre si. f other. 


I Love ye one another. 

Love yourselves. 

JThey despise one another. 

[They despise themselves. 

The penitents were giving heavy 
blows to one another. 

The penitents were giving them- 
. selves heavy blows. 

Such women always hate one 
another, and even hate them¬ 
selves. 

When shall ,we see ourselves as 
others see us?^ 






24 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§19 


Cuando yo llegue, los senadores 
hablaban unos con otros (6 ha- 
blaban entre si). 

Hemos estado discutiendo este 
asunto unos con otros (6 entre 
nosotros ). 

Alb vi a varias mujeres que dis- 
putaban unas con otras (o entre 
si). 


When I arrived, the senators 
were talking with one another 
(or, among themselves). 

We have been discussing this 
matter with one another (or, 
among ourselves). 

I saw several women there who 
were disputing with one another 
(or, among themselves). 


31. The prepositional phrase entre si is also commonly 
used with reference to plural substantives that are not the 
subjects of the verb, in constructions that are, therefore, 
not properly reflexive. This is done mainly with verbs 
expressing distinction or classification, and serves the pur¬ 
pose of avoiding ambiguity. The same end is attained by 
employing the substantives uno and otro, connected by the 
preposition usually following the verb. 


Aiin me es muy diflcil distinguir 
las estrellas unas de otras (6 
entre si). 

Es imposible tratar las ciencias 
naturales como independientes 
unas de otras (6 entre si). 


It is still very difficult for me to 
distinguish the stars from one 
another (or, among themselves). 

It is impossible to treat the natu¬ 
ral sciences as independent of 
one another. 


32. Adverbs Used Instead of Prepositional 
Plirases in Redundant Reciprocal Constructions. 
In constructions of this kind, such adverbs as mutuamente, 
mutually, reciprocamente, reciprocally, often take the 
place of the prepositional phrases a nosotros, a si mismos, etc. 


Nos amamos mutuamente. 

Ese hombre y esa mujer no pue- 
den vivir juntos, pues se odian 
reciprocamente. 

Los dos frailes se daban azotes 
mutuamente. 


We love each other. 

That man and that woman can¬ 
not live together, for they hate 
each other. 

The two friars were giving lashes 
to each other. 


33. Emphatic Use of Mismo in Non-Reflexive 
Constructions. —This adjective may be joined to a sub¬ 
stantive in non-reflexive constructions for the purpose of 
emphasis. It is then rendered by the emphatic compound 
pronouns myself , himself , etc. 





§19 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


25 


Yo mismo lo hice. 

Sus hijas mismas me lo han 
dicho. 

Los generos los embarcamos noso- 
tros mismos. 

Envie la carta a usted misma, 
senora. 

Mi esposa misma salio a recibir a 
las senoritas Gomez. 


I did it myself. 

Your daughters themselves have 
told it to me. 

We shipped the goods ourselves. 

I sent the letter to yourself, 
madam. 

My wife herself went out to re¬ 
ceive the Misses Gomez. 


34. When mismo precedes a proper noun, the definite 
article is placed before it. 


Washington mismo dio la orden. 

El mismo Washington dio la 
orden. 

Jesus mismo condeno todas esas 
ceremonias. 

El mismo Jesus condeno todas 
esas ceremonias. 

Remit! el cheque a don Juan 
mismo. 

Remit! el cheque al mismo don 
Juan. 


Washington himself gave the 
order. 

Jesus himself condemned all 
those ceremonies. 


I remitted the check to Mr. John 
himself. 


35. Mismo is further used after a verb, with the nomi¬ 
native case of a personal pronoun, to emphatically reproduce 
the subject of the sentence, when that subject has been 
expressed before the verb. 


Creo que Washington dio la orden 
el mismo. 

Ella escribio la carta el la misma. 


I think that Washington gave the 
order himself. 

She wrote the letter herself. 


This form of expression applies to reflexive constructions 
as well as to non-reflexive. 


Yo me afeito yo mismo. 

Esos senores se han arruinado 
el los mismos. 

Muchos grandes hombres se han 
educado ellos mismos. 

Pongas/? el sobretodo usted mismo. 


I shave myself. 

Those gentlemen have ruined 
themselves. 

Many great men have educated 
themselves. 

Put on your overcoat yourself. 


The student should understand that in cases of this kind 
the nominative followed by mismo does not really take the 








26 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§19 


place of a redundant prepositional phrase. Thus, in the first 
example, yo mismo does not mean the same as d mi mismo, 
the second yo being an emphatic reproduction of the first, 
and not of the accusative case me. The literal translation 
really is, /, myself , shave myself. The same remarks apply to 
all sentences of a similar form. 


RELATIVE PRONOUNS 


ON RELATIVES IN GENERAL 
36. Preliminary Illustrations and Explanations. 
‘The character and functions of relatives will be better under¬ 
stood by carefully comparing the following pairs of sentences: 


James left this letter for you; he I 
just went out. 

2 

This is the letter; James left it. \ 

3 

Gibbon was a great historian; you I 
have just read his biography. 

4 

I arrived at eight o’clock; the per- I 
formance was then beginning. 


James, who just went out, left this 
letter for you. 

This is the letter that James left. 

Gibbon, whose biography you have 
just read, was a great historian. 

I arrived at eight o’clock, when 
the performance was beginning. 


In example 1. we have, on the left, two separate sentences 
which, although each complete in itself, are presented in a 
disconnected manner, and as if having little or no relation to 
each other. The speaker seems to have first thought of the 
bare fact that James left this letter for you , without any other 
idea entering his mind; and afterwards of the fact that he just 
went out. In the right-hand column the same two thoughts 
are expressed—that James left the letter, and that he just 
went out; —but here they do not appear as independent of 
each other: the two sentences are so connected by the word 
who , that it is at once seen that, when the speaker thought of 
James, he thought both of his having left the letter and of his 
having just gone out; the two thoughts are no longer repre¬ 
sented as disconnected and independent, but as component 
elements of a complex mental act. Here, then, the function 




19 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


27 


of who is to show the interdependence of the two sentences, 
and the combination into one compound thought of the two 
simple thoughts that they express. 

A similar explanation applies to the words that, whose, 
and when in examples 2, 3, and 4, respectively. 

37. Definition of Relatives.—The words who, that, 
whose , when, just considered, partake of the nature of con¬ 
junctions, since they connect sentences; but they differ from 
mere conjunctions in an important respect. Reverting to 
example 1, the expression w,ho just went out is the equiva¬ 
lent of lie just went out , or James just went out. In 
examples 2, 3, and 4, the expressions that James left , whose 
biography you have just read, when the performance was begin¬ 
ning are the equivalents, respectively, of James left it, his 
biography you have just read , the performance was beginning 
then (or, at eight o’clock). The words who , that, whose, 
when, therefore, besides performing the functions of con¬ 
junctions, serve as the representatives of preceding words or 
phrases, to which they refer after the manner of personal 
pronouns. Words thus'Combining the functions of conjunc¬ 
tive and representative or reference words are called rela¬ 
tives. The word or phrase represented by a relative is 
called the antecedent of the relative. . 

38. Classification of Relatives. —A relative may be 
the representative of a substantive (examples 1 and 2, Art. 
36), of an adjective (example 3), or of an adverb or adver¬ 
bial phrase (example 4). In the first case, the relative is 
called a relative pronoun; in the second, a relative 
adjective; in the third, a relative adverb. 

A relative, besides its conjunctive or connective function, 
performs the same grammatical office as would be performed 
by its antecedent, were the latter substituted for the relative. 
Thus, in example 1, Art. 36, who is the subject of the verb 
went , since who just went out stands for James just went out. 
In example 2, that is the accusative of left (James left it); in 
example 3, whose is an adjective modifying the substantive 
biography (you have just read his biography); and in example 4, 


28 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


19 


when is an adverb modifying the verbal expression was 
beginning , as the adverb then does in the expression was 
beginning then. 

39. Propositions. —The sentence introduced by a rela¬ 
tive, and that with which this sentence is connected by the 
relative, are called propositions. In example 1, Art. 36, 
James left this letter for you , and who just went out are propo¬ 
sitions forming a complete coin pound sentence. The 
relative who , which is the representative of he , or of James, 
is the subject of the second proposition. The compound 
sentence given in example 2 consists of the propositions this 
is the letter and that James left: subject of first proposition, 
this; subject of second, James. 

40. Restrictive Propositions and Coordinating 
Propositions. — In the sentence, This is the book that 
James left, the proposition that James left performs the 
office of a restrictive adjective modifying the substantive 
book , since it serves to point out or specify a particular book. 
Propositions that, like this, are introduced by a relative and 
serve the purpose of restrictively modifying the antecedent 
of the relative, are called restrictive propositions. Other 
propositions introduced by relatives are called coordinating 
or explanatory propositions. They serve to explain, or 
point out in a somewhat parenthetical way, some circum¬ 
stance or condition of the antecedent, without restricting the 
meaning of the latter. In all propositions of this kind, the 
relative may, after a proper transposition of words, be 
replaced by a pure conjunction, without either changing 
the meaning of the compound sentence or making its 
elements appear disconnected. Thus, the compound sen¬ 
tence, My father, who is ill, wants a doctor , in which who 
is ill is a coordinating proposition, may be replaced by this, 
My father is ill, and wants a doctor. Orthographically, a 
coordinating proposition is distinguished from a restrictive 
by being placed between commas. 

A relative is said to be used restrictively or coordi- 
natingly according as the proposition to which it belongs 


19 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


29 


is restrictive or coordinating. Of the two propositions con¬ 
nected by a relative, the one containing the antecedent is 
called the principal proposition, or simply the principal; 
the other, the subordinate proposition. 


THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS QUE, QUIEN 

41. Que. — This relative pronoun is used, without change 
of form, with reference to both animate and inanimate things, 
whatever their gender and number. It may be the subject 
or accusative of a verb, or the object of a preposition, either 
in a coordinating or in a restrictive proposition. As the 
object of a preposition, however, it is not often employed 
with reference to people, its place being then taken by quien. 
It is variously rendered by which , that , who , whom , according 
to the character of its antecedent. The student should notice 
very particularly that que (and the same remark applies to 
other relatives) is never omitted, as its English equivalents 
often are, and that in Spanish the preposition is never placed 
after its object. 


Un agente viajero que no entiende 
espanol no puede conseguir mu- 
chos pedidos en Sud-Am6rica. 
{Subject, used, restrictively.) 

El agente, que no sabia espanol, 
no pudohacerseentender. ( Sub¬ 
ject, used coordinatingly .) 

dSon estas las cartas que ella le 
escribid k usted? ( Accusative , 
used restrictively. It would not 
be permissible to omit this que.) 

Las maquinas, que recibi antier, 
llegaron eq muy mal estado. 
{Accusative, employed coordina¬ 
ting ly.) 

Las mdquinas que recibi ayer 
llegaron en muy mal estado. 
{Accusative, used restrictively.) 


A traveling agent who does not 
understand Spanish cannot 
secure many orders in South 
America. 

The agent, who did not know 
Spanish, could not make him¬ 
self understood. 

Are these the letters she wrote to 
you? 

The machines, which I received 
yesterday, arrived in very bad 
condition. {Reference is here 
made to all the machines .) 

The machines that I received 
yesterday arrived in very bad 
condition. {Here reference is 
made to those machines only that 
arrived yesterday, and the rela¬ 
tive tliat may be omitted.) 




30 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


19 


Los g6neros a que usted se refiere 
no han llegado aun. ( Object of 
preposition , used restrictively .) 

El Oregdn, de que antes he ha- 
blado, acababa de llegar del 
Paclfico. ( Object of preposition , 

used coordinatingly.) 

42. Que may have two 
antecedents. 

Acabo de enviarle los dibujos y 
las fotografias que le prometi. 

La senorita Sofia y tin a prima de 
ella , que estuvieron aqul esta 
manana, le dejaron esta caja. 


The goods that you refer to have 
not yet arrived. 

The Oregon, of which I have 
spoken before, had just arrived 
from the Pacific. 

or more substantives as its 


I have just sent you the drawings 
and photographs I promised 
you. 

Miss Sophie and a cousin of hers, 
who were here this morning, 
left this box for you. 


43. Que may be a neuter pronoun, and as such have a 
neuter substantive, a phrase, or several substantives consid¬ 
ered as a whole for its antecedent. 


Esto que te ofrezco es to unico 
que tengo. 

El Pentateuco refiere la muerte 
de Moises; de que se sigue que 
61 no puede haberlo escrito todo. 

He dado d mi hi jo mi casa y mis 
dos tiendas, que era cuanto yo 
poseia. 


This that I am offering you is the 
only thing I have. 

The Pentateuch relates the death 
of Moses; from which it follows 
that he cannot have written it all. 

I have given my son my house 
and my two stores, which was all 
I possessed. 


44. Quien, Who.— This relative is today applied to 
people only. It does not change for gender, but has the 
plural form quienes, which represents more than one person. 
As subject, it is used only in coordinating propositions com¬ 
ing after their respective principals, especially if the latter 
are long and involved. As the object of a preposition, it 
is preferable to que in coordinating propositions. It is also 
preferable to que after the prepositions por, for; sin, without; 
tras, after , and after all prepositions of more than one 
syllable: this applies both to coordinating and to restrictive 
propositions. In propositions of the latter class, however, 
que is preferable to the accusative phrase a quien. Que has this 





§19 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


31 


peculiarity— that it can, as an accusative, refer to people 
without being preceded by a. The employment of quien 
instead of que is governed by the same rules that apply to 
the relative phrase el cual, treated in Art. 49. The student 
will there find a great many additional illustrations. 

Formerly, quien was applied both to people and to animals 
and inanimate things, and was not changed for number. 


Ayer hable con el ingeniero, quien 
(6 que ) me asegur6 que el 
puente estarla terminado antes 
del fin del mes. 

Creo que la ciudad fue fundada 
por unos aventureros espanoles 
en el siglo XVII (diez y siete), 
quienes le dieron el nombre que 
hoy tiene. 

Los hombres por quienes fueron 
escritos esos libros eran muy 
inferiores a los hombres para 
quienes escriblan. 

El almirante Cervera, a quien los 
americanos hicieron prisionero 
en Santiago, mandaba la escua- 
dra espanola. 

Estos son los senores de quienes 
(or, de que ) le he hablado y a 
quienes (better, y que ) usted 
desea conocer. 

Ensene la escritura a mi socio, 
quien, despues de leerla, rehuso 
firmarla. 


I spoke with the engineer yester¬ 
day, who assured me that the 
bridge would be finished before 
the end of the month. 

I think the city was founded by 
some Spanish adventurers in the 
17th century, who gave it the 
name it has today. 

The men by whom those books 
were written were far inferior to 
the men for whom they wrote. 

Admiral Cervera, whom the 
Americans took prisoner at 
Santiago, commanded the Span¬ 
ish squadron. 

These are the gentlemen of whom 
I have spoken to you and whom 
you wish to know. 

I showed the deed to my partner, 
who, after reading it, refused to 
sign it. 


45. Quien may include its antecedent, being then equiva¬ 
lent to el hombre que, the man who, la persona que, 
the person who. It is then better rendered by he who, he that, 
and in the plural by those who or those that. The English 
who may be used in the same sense, though only in poetical 
or elevated style. 


“Quien ama el peligro, perecera 
en el.” 

No confies en quien una vez te ha 
enganado. 


‘‘He who loveth danger shall 
perish in it.” 

Do not trust him who has once 
deceived thee. 




32 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§19 


“Amad a quienes os aborrecen.” 
“Quien no ama el vino, las 
mujeres y el canto,” . . . 


‘‘Love ye those who hate you.” 
“Who loves not wine, women, 
and song,” . . . 


46. The antecedent persona, person, is frequently 
included in quien. If a preposition precedes, it must be 
placed after persona, when the latter substantive is expressed. 
Thus, con quien is equivalent to persona con quien, or perso?ia 
con que. Sentences in which quien is used in this manner 
often have to be rendered rather freely, but the student may 
in every case be guided by the literal translation, which will 
at once indicate the proper translation. 


No tengo A quien pedir lo que tanto 
necesito. 

No encontre con quien hablar. 

dHay aqul quien hable espanol? 
El fue quien me lo dijo. 

AIK viene quien puede' dar la 
orden. 


I have no one ( literally , no per¬ 
son whom) to ask for what 
I need so much. 

I did not find anybody to speak 
with ( literally , I found no per¬ 
son with whom to speak). 

Is there any one here who speaks 
Spanish? 

It was he who told it to me ( lit¬ 
erally , He was the person who 
told it to me). 

There conies the person who can 
give the order. 


47. Tlie Interrogate ves Que and Quien. — The 

words qu£ and quien (with an accent mark over the e) belong 
to the class of interrogative pronouns, and are equivalent, 
respectively, to what and who (or whom, according to case). 
The interrogative que is neuter, and, therefore, requires the 
masculine singular form of adjectives referring to it. 


#,Que es eso? 

&Qui£n es esa senora? 
iQuienes son aquellos Caballeros? 
^Con quien vino usted? 

&Que es mas honroso que morir 
por nuestra patria? 

^De qu£ hablaban ustedes? 


What is that? 

Who is that lady? 

Who are yonder gentlemen? 

With whom did you come? 

What is more honorable than to 
die for our country? 

What were you speaking about? 


48. Indirect Questions. — The interrogative sentences 
just given are direct questions, so called because they 
are independent sentences serving the purpose of asking a 





§19 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


33 


question directly. When expressions having the form of 
interrogative sentences are employed in other sentences as 
phrases, they become indirect questions, or indirectly 
interrogative sentences. No interrogation mark is used 
with these, but the interrogative pronoun should, as in the 
direct question, be marked with the orthographic accent. 
It will be observed that in Spanish the position of the verb 
is the same in a direct as in an indirect question; which, as 
a rule, is not the case in English. 


No se quien es ese senor. 

Aun no hemos podido averiguar 
que es eso. 

Hagame el favor de preguntar 
quien dejo esta esquela. 

I Sabe usted con quien salid Juan? 

Es preciso averiguar quienes fue- 
ron los autores de este horroroso 
crimen. 


I do not know who that gentle¬ 
man is. 

We have not yet been able to find 
out what that is. 

Please ask who left this note. 

Do you know whom John went 
out with? 

It is necessary to find out who 
were the authors of this horrible 
crime. 


PHRASE RELATIVES 

49. El Que and El Cual.— These two phrases perform 
the functions of single relatives, and often take the place of 
que or quien. El que applies mainly to animals and inanimate 
things; el cual , both to these and to people. They have the 
masculine plural forms los q 2 ie, los cuales, and the feminine 
plural forms las que , las cuales — a circumstance that often 
affords an easy means of avoiding the ambiguity that might 
arise from the employment of que or quien. Although, with 
reference to inanimate things and to animals, que and el cual 
are synonymous, the latter is considered preferable in all 
cases. These relatives seldom perform the office of subject 
or accusative in restrictive propositions, except in involved 
sentences in which que would be ambiguous. 


Debemos presentar una protesta 
al gobernador del Estado, la 
cual haga conocer nuestra acti- 
tud en esta materia. 


We must present a protest to the 
Governor of the State, which 
will make known our attitude 
in this matter. 




34 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§19 


If que were substituted for la cual, it would not be plain 
whether the relative referred to protesta or to el gobernador 
del Estado. In the following arrangement, however, all 
danger of ambiguity disappears, and que is preferable: 

Debemos presentar al gobernador del Estado .una protesta que haga 
conocer nuestra actitud en esta materia. 


50. El cual (or, el que) is further employed: 

1. In coordinating propositions, when the latter are pre¬ 
ceded by their respective principals. This is usually the 
case when the antecedent is the accusative of a verb or the 
object of a preposition. If there is no danger of ambiguity, 
el cual , el que may be replaced by que or quien; otherwise, 
only phrase relatives are permissible. 


El enemigo ataco entonces nues¬ 
tra ala izquierda, la cual (or, 
que , or, la que ) tuvo que aban- 
donar sus posiciones. 

Hdllase este pasaje en las obras 
de Tdcito, al cual (or, a quien) 
nadie acusard de parcialidad. 

Llegaron cuatro senoras acom- 
panadas de sus esposos, las 
cuales empezaron inmediata- 
mente d dar drdenes. 


The enemy then attacked our left 
wing, which had to abandon 
its positions. 

This passage is found in the 
works of Tacitus, whom no 
one will accuse of partiality. 

Four ladies accompanied by their 
husbands arrived, and immedi¬ 
ately began to give orders. 


Neither que nor quienes would be permissible in the last 
example, as both would be ambiguous. 


Varios fragmentos de sus obras 
fueron descubiertos el ano pa- 
sado, los cuales estdn ahora en 
el Museo Britanico. 


Several fragments of his works, 
which were discovered last year, 
are now in the British Museum. 


In this example, the masculine form los cuales at once 
points to varios fragmentos as its antecedent. Que would 
not be permissible, for, aside from the fact that it would 
be ambiguous, this relative must as a rule be immediately 
preceded by its antecedent. 

2. After the prepositions por, for; sin, without , and tras, 
after , both in coordinating and in restrictive propositions. 




19 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


85 


La razon por la cual no apro- 
bamos sus planes es la siguiente. 

Segun Ruskin, estos son requisitos 
sin los cuales una obra de 
arte no puede serlo verdadera- 
mente. 

El pianista, sin el cual no puede 
principiar la funcion, no ha lle- 
gado aun. 

El dinero, tras el cual todos 
corremos, es la causa de la 
mayor parte de los males que 
afligen la sociedad. 


The reason why ( literally , for 
which) we do not approve your 
plans is the following. 

According to Ruskin, these are 
requisites without which a work 
of art cannot be truly such. 

The pianist, without whom the 
performance cannot begin, has 
not yet arrived. 

Money, after which we are all 
running, is the cause of the 
greater part of the evils with 
which society is afflicted {liter¬ 
ally , that afflict society). 


3. After prepositions of more than one syllable, such as 
contra, against; bajo, under; para, for. When, however, 
reference is made to people, quien is equally common. 


La competencia contra la cual 
tenemos que luchar es muy 
intensa. 

No se el nombre del emperador 
bajo el cual (or, bajo quien) 
el suceso tuvo lugar. 

Napoleon, sobre el cual (or, sobre 
quien) tanto se ha escrito, 
aun no ha encontrado un bio- 
grafo digno de contar su vida. 


The competition with which we 
have to contend is very keen. 

I do not know the name of the 
emperor under whom the event 
took place. 

Napoleon, about whom so much 
has been written, has not yet 
found a biographer worthy of 
recounting his life. 


4. After a preposition preceded by an adverb, an adver¬ 
bial phrase, or another preposition. This rule may be con¬ 
sidered as but a special case of the preceding one, for a 
combination of an adverb or adverbial phrase with a prep¬ 
osition, or of two prepositions with each other, is nearly 
always equivalent to a single preposition. 


La costa cerca de la cual esta- 
bamos presentaba un aspecto 
sublime. 

Estos son los castillos enfrente de 
los cuales se did la batalla. 


The coast near which we were 
presented a sublime aspect. 

These are the castles opposite 
{or, in front of) which the battle 
was fought ( literally , given). 





36 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§19 


51. EX Cual as an Adjective. — Like the English 
which, the phrase el aicil sometimes modifies a substantive. 
It is then an adjective equivalent to este, this, although par¬ 
taking, like all relatives, of the character of a conjunction. 
This construction, however, should be avoided as much as 
possible, as the resulting sentence is seldom elegant. 


Vimos una casa al otro lado de la 
Canada A que tan penosamente 
descendiamos; la cual casa 
(or, better, casa que), segun 
nos dijo nuestro guia, per- 
tenecla al gobernador de la 
provincia. 

He estado muy enfermo, por el 
cual' motivo (or, better, mo¬ 
tive) por el cual) no he podido 
venir a verte. 


We saw a house on the other side 
of the ravine to which we were 
so painfully descending; which 
house, as our guide told us, 
belonged to the governor of the 
province. 

I have been very ill, and this is 
why {literally,lor which motive) 
I have not been able to come to 
see you. 


52. Use of Cuyo Instead of El Cual. —Although cuyo 
is properly a relative possessive adjective meaning whose, 
and although its employment as a substitute for el cual in the 
sense of este has been condemned by some eminent gram¬ 
marians, it is nevertheless used in the latter sense by very 
good authorities, mainly to avoid the awkward construction 
formed by el cual followed by a substantive. Cuyo always 
precedes the substantive it modifies. 

Vimos una casa al otro lado de la Canada A que tan penosamente 
descendiamos; cuya casa {instead of, la cual casa), segun nos dijo 
nuestro guia, etc. 

He estado muy enfermo, por cuyo motivo {instead of, por el cual 
motivo) no he podido venir A verte. 

53. Eo Que and Eo Cual.— As el cual, el que can 
have reference only to masculine or feminine antecedents, 
either que (Art. 43), lo que, or lo cual is employed to repre¬ 
sent sentences, which, for the purposes of representation, are 
always considered as neuters (see Part 3). Lo que and lo 
cual are t like el que and el cual, treated as single relatives, 
but of the neuter gender. The relative phrase lo que should 
not be confounded with the expression lo que, that which, 
what, formed by the neuter substantive lo and the neuter 



§19 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


37 


relative que (see Part 3). Lo cual and lo que. are synonymous 
relatives, although the former is considered more elegant. 
Either of them is, as a rule, preferable to que for the 
representation of a sentence or phrase. As representatives 
of a neuter substantive, lo cual and lo que are admissible 
only in coordinating propositions coming after their respect¬ 
ive principals. 


El trafico entre Colon y Panama 
esta interrumpido, lo cual {or, lo 
que) nos esta causando muchas 
perdidas. 

Mi padre te dejo esto, lo cual (or, 
lo que, or, better, que), segun 
entiendo, es una caja de instru- 
mentos de dibujo. 

Le dijimos que no le venderiamos 
las calderas que deseaba por 
menos de dos mil pesos; a lo 
cual {or, a lo que) contesto que 
podia conseguirlas mejores por 
mil seiscientos. 


The traffic between Colon and 
Panama is now interrupted, 
which is causing us many losses. 

My father left this for you; which, 
I understand, is a box of draw¬ 
ing instruments. 

We told him that we would not 
sell him the boilers he wished 
for less than two thousand dol¬ 
lars; to which he answered that 
he could get better ones for six¬ 
teen hundred. 


INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 


DEFINITION-COMBINATION OF NEGATIVES 

54. The Indefinite Pronouns. — The name indefinite 
pronoun is given to certain substantives employed to denote 
persons in an indefinite manner; that is, without referring to 
any persons or classes of persons in particular: they refer 
to people in general, or to unspecified individuals. 

The most important indefinite pronouns are: 


alguien, somebody, anybody 

alguno, anybody 

cada cual, 1 , , 

1 everybody 
cada uno, J 


cualquiera, \ any one , who- 
quienquiera, J ever 
nadie, nobody, anybody 
ninguno, nobody 


uno, one 


Some of these words often assume the functions of adjec¬ 
tives; but here they will be treated in their substantive 
capacity only. 






38 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


19 


55. Rule for tlie Combination of Negatives. —As 

will be observed, several of the indefinite pronouns are of a 
negative character. Their syntax is governed by the follow¬ 
ing general 


Rule. — The verb relating to a negative indefinite pronoun 
should be preceded by the negative adverb no if the pronoun fol¬ 
lows the verb; otherwise , no should not be employed. The two 
forms are equally proper and equally common, except in 
interrogative sentences, in which the pronoun is preferably 
placed after the verb. 

As the indefinite pronouns have reference to persons, they 
should, when serving as accusatives, be preceded by a. 


A nadie conozco aqui. 

No conozco aqui a nadie. 
Ninguno se atrevio d hablar. 

No se atrevio ninguno a hablar. 
sNo havisto usted a nadie? 
better than 

&A nadie ha visto usted? 


I know no one here. 

No one dared to speak. 

Have you not seen anybody? 

Have you seen nobody? 


REMARKS ON THE USE OF THE INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 

56. Alguien, Alguno, Nadie, and Ninguno.— The 
first of these pronouns is used in affirmative sentences and 
in direct questions; the second, usually in direct questions; 
the third and the fourth, in 
sentences. 

Alguien toca a la puerta. 

Se que mataron a alguien , pero 
no se a quien. 

^Hablo usted con alguien? 1 

,<Habl6 usted con alguno? J 

Ninguno ha venido. 

Nadie ha venido. 

No ha venido ninguno. 

No ha venido nadie. 
iNo ha venido nadie? 1 

iNo ha venido ninguno? j 

57. Cada Uno and Cada Cual.— The use of these 
phrase pronouns is illustrated by the following examples: 


negative and in interrogative 

Some one is knocking at the door. 
I know they killed somebody, but 
I do not know whom. 

Did you speak with anybody? 

No one has come. 

Has no one come? 






19 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


39 


Cada uno (or, Cada cual ) tiene 
derecho & expresar sus opi- 
niones. 

iNo esta cada uno (or, cada cual ) 
obligado a respetar las leyes? . 


Everybody has a right to express 
his opinions. 

Is not every one obliged to respect 
the laws? 


58. Cualquiera and Quienquiera. —These pronouns 
cannot, like the English whoever , or like the Spanish quien , 
be employed as relatives including their antecedents; that 
is, they cannot be employed in the sense of any one who. 
Either of them may be, and quienquiera nearly always is, the 
antecedent of the relative que , but the relative must always be 
expressed. They are employed in affirmative sentences only. 


Eso lo sabe cualquiera. 

Cualquiera (or, Quienquiera ) que 
haya estudiado el asunto, le dira 
que usted estd equivocado. 
Cualquiera le ensenara la estacion. 


Anybody knows that. 

Whoever (or , Any one who) has 
studied the matter, will tell you 
that you are mistaken. 

Anybody will show you the station. 


59. Uno.— This pronoun is the equivalent of the 
English indefinite pronoun one. 


Uno debe cumplir su palabra. | One must keep one’s word. 


As shown by this example, uno , like any other third-person 
substantive, takes the third person possessive adjective su, 
his, there being no Spanish word corresponding literally to 
the English one's. Likewise, the pronominal cases of // are 
applied to uno , as to any other third-person substantive. 


,jNo tiene uno el dereeho de defen- 
derse cuando lo (6 le) atacan? 

Uno no debe desear para los 
demas lo que no desea para si. 


Does not one have the right to 
defend oneself when one is 
attacked ? 

One should not desire for others 
what one does not desire for 
oneself. 


A woman, referring to something that applies exclusively 
to women, says a^za, not uno. 


Una no debe casarse demasiado I A woman should not marry too 
joven. I young. 

Some other important uses of this pronoun will be given 
in connection with the infinitive. 







* 




> 









» 




































N 






SPANISH GRAMMAR 

(PART 5) 


THE ADJECTIVE 


INTRODUCTORY DEFINITIONS 


DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES AND POSSESSIVE 
ADJECTIVES 

Note. —The various kinds of adjectives here defined will be treated 
at length in subsequent articles. 

1. Demonstratives. —The general term demonstra¬ 
tives is applied to certain words of reference — mainly 
substantives and adjectives —primarily employed for pointing 
out objects by their position with respect to the first or to 
the second person, or for directing the attention to words or 
groups of words by indicating their positions in the sentence. 

Demonstratives are divided into demonstrative pro¬ 
nouns, demonstrative adjectives, and demonstrative 
adverbs, according as they are substantives, adjectives, or 
adverbs. The student is already familiar with the neuter 
demonstrative pronouns esto, eso, aquello, treated in Part 3,. 
The principal demonstrative adjectives are este, this; ese, 
that; aquel, yonder. 

2. Possessive Adjectives. —This name is given to 
adjectives indicating to whom or to what belong or apper¬ 
tain the things denoted by the substantives they modify. 
The following are examples: 

For notice of copyright, see page immediately following the title Page 
g 20 





2 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§20 


mi, my 

nuestro, our , ours 


mio, mine su, your , his , z7.y, their 
tu, thy tuyo, thine 


The relative cuyo, whose , belongs to this class. 


NUMERALS 


3. The term numerals is applied to certain nouns and 
adjectives expressing definite numbers or numerical rela¬ 
tions. Such are tres, three; ambos, both; segundo, second. 
Words like muehos, many , which indicate number in an 
indefinite manner, are not classed as numerals. 

4. Classes of Numerals. — Numerals are divided into 
the following classes: 

1. Cardinal numerals, which convey no other idea 
than that of number. 

uno, one \ cuatro, four | veinticinco, twenty-five | mil, one thousand 

2. Ordinal numerals, which indicate numerical order 
or position in an enumeration or series. 

primero, first | quinto, fifth | decimo, tenth 

3. Multiple numerals, which denote multiplication, 
doble, double \ triple, triple \ cuatrotanto, fourfold 

4. Partitive, or fractional, numerals, which denote 
numerical division. 

medio, half | tercio, third (i) | mitad, half 

This class is really but a subdivision of cardinal numerals, 
but, for grammatical purposes, it is better to consider it as 
an independent class. 

5. Collective numerals, which are the names of certain 
groups of units —groups that are themselves used as units of 
a higher order than those of which they consist. A collective 
numeral may also be defined as the special name given to a 
number when the things it serves to count, are taken collect¬ 
ively, that is, as forming a whole or one object. 

docena, dozen | veintena, score | par, pair 





20 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


3 


THE SUBSTANTIVIZED ADJECTIVE AND THE 
ADJECTIVIZED SUBSTANTIVE 


THE SUBSTANTIVE ADJECTIVE 

5. Definition. —In Spanish, the substantive to which 
an adjective refers is often not mentioned, being understood. 
The adjective then takes the place of the substantive phrase 
that would be formed by it and the modified substantive, 
and is said to be used substantively, to be substan¬ 
tivized (Spanish, sustantivado ), or to be a substantive 
adjective. 


6. Cases in Which the Adjective Is Substantivized. 
The following are the most important cases of substantia¬ 
tion of the adjective: 

1. Adjectives expressing qualities, properties, or condi¬ 
tions of persons are used substantively, both in the singular 
and in the plural, sometimes with the definite article, some¬ 
times without it, to denote persons to whom such adjectives 
may be applied. The substantives implied are hombre, 
man; liombres, men; persona, person; mujer, woman; 
mujeres, women, according to circumstances and to the 
number and gender of the adjective. It should be observed 
that when in English the adjective is substantivized under 
similar circumstances, the plural form of the substantive is 
always understood. Thus, the rich, the good, mean, 
respectively, rich men, good men. 


Bienaventurados son los pobres. 

Bienaventurado es el pobre. 

Los hiteligentes tienen una alta 
opinion de esta obra. 

Las bet las haran mofa de usted. 

Habia en el baile muchas solteras 
y pocos solteros. 

La esperanza es el consuelo del 
desgraciado {or, de los desgracia- 
dos). 


Blessed are the poor. 

Blessed is the poor man. 

Intelligent people have a high 
opinion of this work. 

The fair ones {more literally, 
Pretty women) will ridicule you. 

There were many unmarried 
women and few unmarried men 
at the ball. 

Hope is the consolation of the 
unfortunate. 




4 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


20 


Teoricamente, ricos y pobres de- 
ben obedecer las leyes; en la 
practica, sin embargo, el rico 
disfruta de muchos privilegios 
que al pobre le son negados. 

Las demasiado jovenes no saben 
bastante, y las muy viejas saben 
demasiado. 

No fue escrito ese libro para igno- 
rantes, sino para sabios. — iComo 
puede un ignoratite escribir para 
los sabiosf 

Los dos enfermos — una anciana 
de sesenta anos y un joven de 
veinte — oeupaban dos cuartos 
en el mismo piso. 


Theoretically, the rich and the 
poor must obey the laws; in 
practice, however, the rich enjoy 
many privileges that are denied 
to the poor. 

Women that are too young do not 
know enough, and those that 
are very old know too much. 

That book was not written for the 
ignorant, but for the learned.— 
How can an ignorant man write 
for the learned? 

The two sick persons — an elderly 
woman of sixty years and a 
young man of twenty — occupied 
two rooms on the same floor. 


2. When a plural noun to which an adjective refers has 
already been mentioned, and it is not necessary to repeat it, 
the adjective is used substantively. In English, the sub¬ 
stantive is often reproduced by ones. 


Tenemos muchos parroquianos 
espanoles, pero pocos franceses. 

<;Que clase de guantes desea usted 
ver —de tana 6 de cabritilla? 
(.Notice the substantivized adjec¬ 
tival phrases de lana and de 
cabritilla.) 

^Va usted k comprar cigarrillos 
cubanos, 6 americanos? 

En esta caja hay dos corbatas 
blancas y dos negras. 


We have many Spanish custom¬ 
ers, but few French ones. 

What kind of gloves do you wish 
to see —woolen or kid? 


Are you going to buy Cuban ciga¬ 
rettes, or American (ones) ? 

In this box there are two white 
neckties and two black ones. 


3. Either the definite or the indefinite article, followed by 
an adjective or an adjectival phrase, may refer to a substan¬ 
tive that, having been previously mentioned, is understood. 
Grammarians consider that, in such cases, the adjective 
following the article, not the article itself, is substantivized. 
It seems more logical, however, to consider the article as 
being the substantivized adjective, and the adjective follow¬ 
ing, as a modifier of the article thus substantively employed. 
The substantivized indefinite article has the masculine 




20 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


5 


singular form nno, while the adjective form is un. For the 
masculine plural, and both numbers of the feminine, the sub¬ 
stantive form is the same as the adjective — unos, una , 7 mas. 

In English, the substantive implied in the substantivized 
Spanish article is generally represented by one, ones , although 
in some cases it is necessary to repeat the substantive, while 
in others a form of construction similar to the Spanish is 
permissible. It will be observed that the substantivized 
article may include a substantive whose number is different 
from that of the expressed substantive. 


He traducido las cartas espanolas, 
pero no las fraticesas. 

,-Cual botella me pidio usted, la 
llena 6 la vacia? 

La raza blanca es muy superior a 
la negra. 

De las dos tiendas que tenemos, 
la nueva nos produce mas que 
la vieja. 

La lengua iiiglesa no es tan 
melodiosa como las romances. 

Este ferrocarril posee muchas ven- 
tajas que los ingleses no tienen. 

Llevese esta servilleta, y traigame 
una limpia. 

,;Conoee usted un buen libro para 
aprender espanol? —Si; las Es- 
cuelas de Scranton acaban de 
publicar uno muy bueno. 


I have translated the Spanish let¬ 
ters, but not the French. 

Which bottle did you ask me for, 
the full one or the empty one? 

The white race is far superior to 
the black. 

Of the two stores we have, the 
new one produces more than the 
old one. 

The English language is not so 
melodious as the Romance lan¬ 
guages. 

This railroad possesses many ad¬ 
vantages that English roads do 
not have. 

Take away this napkin, and give 
me a clean one. 

Do you know a good book for 
learning Spanish? —Yes; the 
Scranton Schools have just pub¬ 
lished a very good one. 


When the substantivized definite article is modified.by a 
prepositional phrase or by a restrictive relative proposition, 


it is rendered either by the one 

Hagame el favor de llevar este 
libro d don Miguel, y pedirle el 
que le preste ayer. 

Los caminos de los Estados Uni- 
dos son mucho mejores que los 
de la Republic a Argentina. 


or by that. 

Please take this book to Mr. 
Michael, and ask him for the 
one I lent him yesterday. 

The roads of the United States 
are much better than those of 
the Argentine Republic. 







6 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§20 


El estudio de la filosofla no es tan 
importante como el de las cien- 
cias naturales. 

Ni las herramientas que ustedes 
nos mandaron el mes pasado, 
ni las que recibimos ayer, son 
las que nosotros necesitamos . 


The study of philosophy is not so 
important as that of the natural 
sciences. 

Neither the tools you sent us last 
month nor those we received 
yesterday are the ones that we 
need. 


7. Adjectives Become Substantives After the Prep¬ 
osition De. — Words that usually perform the office of adjec¬ 
tives may perform that of substantives, forming prepositional 
phrases with de. They are then classed by grammarians as 
substantivized adjectives. In reality, however, this peculiar 
use of adjectives transforms them into true substantives 
denoting qualities in the abstract: no substantive is nor can 
possibly be understood with or included in them; hence, the 
definition of a substantivized adjective can hardly be applied 
to them. Besides, these adjectives can in many cases be 
replaced by words ordinarily classed as substantives. The 
masculine singular form of the adjective is the only one 
that can be thus changed into a substantive. 

The expression tener de , followed by an adjective, conveys 
the idea of degree or quantity. With adjectives of dimen¬ 
sion, tener de is rendered by to be , or to be in; in the former 
case, an adjective is used in English after to be; in the latter, 
a substantive denoting in the abstract the same property as 
the adjective. With adjectives not expressing dimension, 
the translation can generally be made by means of there to be , 
as appears from the examples given below. 

largo, long; longitud, length 

El puente de Brooklyn no tiene I The Brooklyn bridge is not three 
tres millas de largo (or, de | miles long (or, in length). 

longitud). 


ancho, wide; anchura, width 

La calle Real tiene doscientos pies I Royal Street is two hundred feet 
de ancho (or, de anchura). | wide {or, in width). 

hondo, deep; hondura, depth 

El rio tiene alii seis metros de | The river is there six meters deep 
hondo (or, de hondura) . | {or, in depth). 



20 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


7 


Eso no tiene nada de extrano. 
Lo que listed dice tiene mucho de 
nuevo, pero poco de util. 


There is nothing strange in that. 
There is much that is new, but 
little that is useful, in what you 
say. 


In cases like the last two, the verb liaber, there to be , may 
take the place of tener. (The indicative present of haber, 
used in this .sense, is hay , which means both there is and 
there are.) 


En eso no hay nada de extrano. 

En lo que usted dice hay mucho de nuevo , pero poco de util. 

The following examples illustrate the substantive office of 
adjectives preceded by de , without either of the verbs haber 
or tener: 


Las dos haciendas estan separa- 
das por un arroyo de quince 
metros de ancho (or, de 
anchura). 

El canal tiene curvas muy agudas, 
que hacen la navegacion imposi- 
ble para botes de mas de doce 
metros de largo (or, de lon- 
gitud). 


The two cattle ranches are sepa¬ 
rated by a stream fifteen meters 
wide (or, in width). 

The canal has very sharp curves, 
which make navigation impos¬ 
sible for boats of more than 
twelve meters in length. 


THE ADJECTIVE SUBSTANTIVE 

8. Definition. —A substantive that modifies another, 
and performs, therefore, the office of an adjective, is called 
an adjective substantive, and is said to be used adjec- 
tively, or to be adjectivized (Spanish, adjetivado ). 

9. Cases in Which the Substantive Is Adjectiv¬ 
ized. — A very important difference between the Spanish and 
the English language is that in the former the substantive is 
comparatively seldom adjectivized, while the latter abounds 
in combinations in which the substantive is used adjectively 
to denote a great variety of relations. In the majority of 
cases, these combinations can be rendered into Spanish only 
by prepositional phrases. This subject will be presently 
explained more at length. 





SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§20 


The principal cases in which the Spanish substantive is 
adjectivized are given below. Following the general syn¬ 
tactic rule applying to nearly all adjectives, an adjectivized 
substantive is placed after the substantive it modifies. 

1. When a person combines the properties, qualities, 
functions, or any other distinguishing features denoted by 
two different substantives, one of these may be used adjec- 
tively to modify the other, the modifying substantive serving 
the purpose of pointing out —often in an emphatic manner 
and as an unusual circumstance —the fact that the person 
denoted by the modified substantive combines the properties 
or functions expressed by the latter substantive with those 
expressed by the former. 


Los americanos han levantado 
varios monumentos a su presi- 
dente martir (Lincoln). 

Las maximas de Epicteto, el escla- 
vo filosofo, ejercieron grande 
influjo sobre Marco Aurelio, el 
filosofo emperador. 

Segun los Evangelios, Jesus des- 
cendia del gran profeta i*ey 
(David). 

Tomas Paine, el heroe escritor, 
voto contra la ejecucion de 
Luis XVI (Diez y seis). 

En lenguaje religioso, Jesus es 
llamado el Hombre Dios. 


The Americans have raised several 
monuments to their martyr 
president (Lincoln). 

The maxims of Epictetus, the phi¬ 
losopher slave, exercised great 
influence over Marcus Aurelius, 
the emperor philosopher. 

According to the Gospels, Jesus 
descended from the great king 
prophet (David). 

Thomas Paine, the author hero, 
voted against the execution of 
Louis XVI. 

In religious language, Jesus is 
called the God Man. 


The order of the two substantives indicates which one is 
to be treated as modifier and which as modified. In the 
phrase, el esclavo filosofo, the dominant idea, the one to be 
made prominent, is that Epictetus was a slave, while in the 
phrase, el filosofo emperador, the main idea to be expressed 
is that Marcus Aurelius was a philosopher. Likewise, we 
may say either, el orador muchaclio, the boy orator , or, el 
muchacho orador, the orator boy , according to which attri¬ 
bute of the person referred to we wish to emphasize —whether 
his being a boy or his being an orator. 

2. A substantive may be used to modify another in 



20 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


9 


order to show that the thing denoted by the modified 
substantive serves the purpose, performs the functions, or 
has the characteristic properties of the thing denoted by the 
modifying substantive. 


dormitorio, dormitory; 
carro, car: 

carcel, jail; 
casa, house: 

moneda, money; 
papel, paper: 


carro dormitorio, sleeping car (a car used as 
a dormitory) 

casa cdrcel, jail house (a house temporarily 
used as a jail) 

; papel moneda, paper money (paper used as 
I money) 


The literal translation of the last phrase is money paper , as 
the idea conveyed by it is not that the money is made of 
paper or consists of paper, but that the paper is used as, or 
takes the place of, money. 

As an exception, the adjective substantive madre, ipother , 
is placed before the modified substantive patria, country, in 
the phrase madre patria, mother country . 

In the following examples, the adjective substantives 
monstruo, monster , and modelo, model , indicate that the 
peculiar properties they express are possessed by the things 
that the modified substantives denote. 


Roma tuvo emperadores raons- 
truos, como Neron, y empera¬ 
dores modelos, como Marco 
Aurelir. 

El metro es la longitud de una 
barra modelo que se conserva 
en los archivos de Paris. 


Rome had monster emperors like 
Nero, and model emperors like 
Marcus Aurelius. 

The meter is the length of a stand- 
• ard bar which is preserved in 
the Paris archives. 


10. Substantives in Apposition. —When a substan¬ 
tive immediately follows another, explaining or character¬ 
izing the latter, the two being different terms applied to the 
same thing, they are said to be in apposition. This defini¬ 
tion is applicable to substantive phrases as well as to 
substantives. In the following examples, the modifying 
substantives and phrases are printed in bold type; the modi¬ 
fied substantives and phrases, in Italic. The student will 



10 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


20 


notice that the modifying substantive or phrase is not 
preceded by the indefinite article, and that two substantives 
in apposition do not necessarily agree in gender or number. 


Pedro , obispo, alos fieles, salud. 

Los derechos de aduana , obsta- 
culo que impide la importa¬ 
tion, desapareceran en el por- 
venir. 

El canal de Suez , obra de grande 
importancia comercial, fue cons- 
truido por Lesseps. 


Peter, bishop, to the faithful, 
greeting. 

Custom-house duties, an obstacle 
that prevents importation, will 
disappear in the future. 

The Suez canal, a work of great 
commercial importance, was 
constructed by Lesseps. 


11. Adjectival Prepositional Phrases Rendering 
English Adjectivized Substantives. —In the majority of 
cases, the relation that in English is expressed by adjectiv¬ 
izing the substantive, is expressed in Spanish by means of 
prepositions. What preposition should be used can some¬ 
times be readily seen by replacing the English adjective 
substantive by a prepositional phrase. Thus, gold watch , 
which is equivalent to watch oigold, is rendered by reloj de 
oro. Likewise, 

silk socks (socks of silk) 

Paris style (style of Paris) 
the United ‘States government 
(the government of the United 
States) 

cod-liver oil (oil from the liver of 
cod) 

house drainage (drainage of 
houses) 

liberty-of-the-press law ( better , 
law on the liberty of the press) 
real-estate tax (tax on real estate) 
champagne glasses (glasses for 
champagne) 

12. The prepositions most commonly used in adjectival 
prepositional phrases are de and para. 

1. De is mainly employed: 

(a) To denote the substance or material of which a thing 
is made. 


medias de seda 
estilo de Paris 

el gobierno de los Estados Unidos 

aceite de hlgado de bacalao 

desagiie de casas 

ley sobre la libertad de la prensa 

impuesto sobre fincas ralces 
vasos para champana 




§20 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


11 


un reloj tie plat a 
una casa tie ladrillo 
una mesa tie madera 
unos guantes de lana 

( b ) To denote the place 
duced, or the object or place 
or obtained. 

extracto tie came; sal tie mar 
carbon tie madera; miel tie abejas 

brisa de mar; cafe tie Java 


a silver watch 
a brick house 

a wooden ( literally , wood) table 
some woolen ( literally , wool) 
gloves 


beef extract; sea salt 
charcoal (coal from wood); bees¬ 
wax 

sea breeze; Java coffee 


where a thing is found or pro- 
from which the thing is extracted 


(c) To indicate that a person belongs to a certain class 
characterized by the kind of place where persons belonging 
to that class customarily work or live, or which they habitu¬ 
ally frequent. 


muchacho tie oficina 
medicos tie hospital 
un hombre de campo 
gente tie teatro 
una mujer tie iglesia 


office boy 
hospital physicians 
a country man 
theater people 
a church woman 


(d) To indicate that one thing forms part of another, or 
belongs with another, as a distinguishing or characteristic 
feature. It is then equivalent to the English with. 


una m&quina de condensador 

una maquina cle tres cilindros 
una casa tie dos pisos 
un reloj tie pendalo 
un sombrero de copa alt a 
una escopeta tie dos cahones 


a condensing engine (an engine 
with a condenser) 
a three-cylinder engine 
a two-story house 
a pendulum clock 
a high-crown hat 
a double-barreled gun (a gun with 
two barrels) 


e) To indicate the physical agent by which something 


is operated, or by means of 
characteristic functions. 

m&quina tie vapor 
buque tie vapor 
buque de vela 


which a thing performs its 

steam engine 
steamer (steamship) 
sailing vessel (sail ship) 






12 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


20 


lampara de petrbleo 
calentador de agua caliente 
refrigerador de amoniaco 


oil lamp 

hot-water radiator 
ammonia refrigerator 


(/) To indicate the purpose served by a thing, or that 
for which the thing- is intended. 


buque de guerrci; banco de aho- 

rros 

lampara de seguridad; saco de 
viaje 

caballo de silla; caballo de Ca¬ 
rrera 

bata de bano; traje de baile 
ropa de domingo 
anillo de matrimonio 

( g ) To indicate location. 

puerto de mar; puerto de Ho 
estacion de ferrocarril 
escuelas de a Idea 


war ship; savings bank 

safety lamp; traveling bag ( more 
literally , journey bag) 
saddle horse; race horse 

bath robe; ball dress 
Sunday clothes 
wedding ring 


seaport; river port 
railroad station 
village schools 


(h) To indicate dimensions, value, price, or weight. 


un cilindro de veinte pulgadas 
una cadena de cincuenta metros 
un billete de cien pesos 
una moneda de veinticinco cen¬ 
tavos 

un sombrero de quince pesos 
un buque de dos mil toneladas 


a twenty-inch cylinder 
a fifty-meter chain 
a one-hundred-dollar bill 
a twenty-five-cent coin 

a fifteen-dollar hat 
a two-thousand-ton vessel 


The preposition d is usually placed after de before a sub¬ 
stantive phrase indicating price or value. 

un billete de a cien pesos 

una moneda de a veinticinco centavos 

un sombrero de a quince pesos 

(i) To denote the substance produced by, or found in, an 
object or place. 


minas de oro y de plata 
cana de azucar 
lago de asfalto 
los paises del algodbn 


gold and silver mines 
sugar cane 
asphalt lake 
the cotton countries 


(/) In many other adjectival prepositional phrases that it 







20 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


13 


would be difficult to classify, 
examples: 

el dolor tie muelas 

los reglamentos tie policia 

bora tie comida , tie almuerzo 

plantacion tie cafe 

mariscal tie campo 

ayudante tie campo 

dla tie fiesta 

sistema tie educacion 

discursos tie elecciones 

teneduria tie libros 

2. Para often takes the pi 
tional phrases indicating the 
named by the substantives th; 

carbon para locomotoras 
estantes para libros 
prendedores para corbatas 
alambre para telegrafos 
cables para puentes colgantes 
sombreros para (or, tie) verano 
generos para cortinas 
camisas para ninos 
zapatos para senoras 


The following may serve as 

the toothache 
the police regulations 
dinner, breakfast time (hour) 
coffee plantation 
field marshal 

aide-de-camp ( literally, field aid) 
holiday (day of festival) 
education system 
election speeches 
bookkeeping (keeping of books) 

ace of de in adjectival preposi- 
use or purpose of the things 
t those phrases modify. 

locomotive coal 
bookcases 
necktie pins 
telegraph wire 
suspension-bridge cables 
summer hats 
curtain goods 
children’s shirts 
ladies’ shoes 


13 . Adjectival Phrases Formed by the Preposi- 
tions He and Para With an Infinitive as Object. 

Among adjectival phrases formed with de, one of the most 
important classes consists of phrases in which the object 
of the preposition is an infinitive, the purpose of the phrase 
being to express that the thing denoted by the modified sub¬ 
stantive is used for the performance of the action denoted 
by the infinitive. This relation is usually expressed in 
English by means of the present participle (literal equivalent 
of the Spanish gerund), which takes the place of the Spanish 
prepositional phrase. 


Nosotros vendemos maquinas de 
coser. 

Hoy hemos pedido d Nueva-York 
varias prensas de copiar y md- 
quinas de escribir . 


We sell sewing machines. 

Today we have ordered from New 
York several copying presses and 
typewriters (writing machines). 





14 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


20 


El tltulo de este dibujo estd escrito 
con tinta de escribir, y no con 
tinta de dibujar. 

En esta ciudad no hay bombas 
de apagar incendios. 

Necesito una navaja de afeitar. 

The preposition para is used 
not so often as de. 

colores para pintar 
instrumentos para medir el 
tiempo 

polvora para reventar rocas 


The title of this drawing is writ¬ 
ten with writing ink, and not 
with drawing ink. 

In this town there are no fire- 
(extinguishing) engines. 

I need a razor (shaving knife). 

in the same manner, although 

painting colors 

time-measuring instruments 

rock-blasting powder 


14 . The Predicate Substantive. — When a substantive 
is used in the predicate of a sentence, and the purpose of the 
sentence is to state that the thing denoted by the subject 
possesses the properties or the characteristic features of the 
thing denoted by the substantive in the predicate, the latter 
is called a predicate substantive. 

The student will notice that in Spanish a predicate sub¬ 
stantive is not preceded by the indefinite article. 


Mi hermano es general. 

Nosotros somos comerciantes. 

Ese metal parece plata , pero es 
aluminio. 


My brother is a general. 

We are merchants. 

That metal looks like silver, but 
it is aluminum. 


Some grammarians class predicate substantives with 
adjectivized substantives. This classification is neither log¬ 
ical nor necessary. There is, however, a special case in 
which the predicate substantive really performs the functions 
of an adjective, and it can then be modified by adverbs, as 
true adjectives are. This takes place when a substantive is 
taken metaphorically to represent only those properties that 
are characteristic of the class of objects it names or that form 
the distinguishing, essential, or most important features of 
that class of objects. When the substantive is thus adjec¬ 
tivized, it is generally modified by an adverb, such as muy, 
very, or mas, more. The following examples will serve to 
illustrate the meaning of such combinations and the way in 
which they are rendered: 





20 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


15 


Esa mujer es muy seiiora. 

Esa senora es muy mujer. 

El coronel me parecib tan 
hombre como caballero; 
pero su ayudante es mas mujer 
que soldado: no habla sino 
de modas y otras trivialidades, 
y casi se desmaya cuando oye 
un disparo de canon. 


That woman is quite a lady {or, 
very much of a lady). 

That lady is quite a woman. 

I found the colonel to be as manly 
as he is gentlemanly; but his 
aide-de-camp is more woman¬ 
like than soldierly: he speaks 
of nothing but fashions and 
other trifles, and almost faints 
away when he hears the report 
of a cannon. 


AUGMENTATIYES AND DIMINUTIVES 


COLLOQUIAL AUGMENTATIVE AND DIMINUTIVE 
ADJECTIVES 

15 . These adjectives, which occur only in very familiar 
style, are derived from others by the addition of the endings 
mentioned in connection with augmentative and diminutive 
substantives. Such endings generally intensify the meaning 
of the adjective to which they are added, being then equivalent 
to the adverb muy, very; and, as in the case of substantives, 
often serve as marks of contempt, pity, affection, disgust, 
etc. This is a subject that cannot be reduced to any fixed 
rules: in the style of familiar intercourse, augmentative and 
diminutive adjectives are used somewhat as the colloquial 
words and expressions nice , sweet , nice and —, cute, horrid, 
awful are used in English; they include a great variety of 
meanings and shades of meaning that cannot be properly 
conveyed by written explanations, and that cannot be learned 
except by constant contact with Spanish-speaking people. 
For these reasons, only a few of the most important uses 
of this class of adjectives will be given here. 

1. A diminutive ending is added to an adjective that 
qualifies a substantive denoting a small object or a very 
young person, to emphasize the smallness of the object or 
the tender age of the person, often with the implication of 
affection, admiration, etc. Not infrequently, the ending is 
added to the substantive also. 





16 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§20 


amueblado, furnished 

El cuarto que nos dieron estaba | The little room they gave us was 
muy bien amuebladito. \ very nicely furnished. 


elegante, stylish 


La ninita de usted es muy ele- 
gantxcSL. 


Your little girl is quite stylish. 


pequeuo, 

Sus manos pequehneliis no esta- 
ban acostumbradas al trabajo. 

cuadrado, square; 

Los panuelos vinieron en una 
cajita cuadraditu muy bien en- 
vueltlcSL en papel de seda. 


small, little 

Her pretty little hands were not 
accustomed to work. 

envuelto, wrapped 
The handkerchiefs came in a fine 
square little box, very nicely 
done up in tissue paper. 


2. The same endings often denote daintiness, neatness, 
or pleasing arrangement. 

Los panuelos vinieron muy bien j The handkerchiefs came very nice- 
envitelticos. ly wrapped. 

arreglado, orderly kept 

Me gusta ver una casa tan bien I like to see a house so carefully 
arregladitn. (or, nicely) kept. 


3. As already stated, some diminutive endings intensify 
the meaning of the adjective, and are equivalent to muy, 
very, although, for emphasis, they may be used in combina¬ 
tion with this adverb. 

claro, plain 


Eso me parece clarito. 


That seems to me as plain as can 
be. 


limpio, clean 

Los comedores de ese hotel estan j The dining rooms of that hotel are 
siempre limpid citos. | always nice and clean. 


pobre, poor 

Ahora estamos muy pobre, citos. | We are quite poor now. 

pequeno, small 

<No desea usted m&s carne?— Do you not wish some more meat? 
Deme una tajada pequehita. Give me a very small slice. 








§20 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


17 


4. In other cases, on the contrary, a diminutive ending, 
or the augmentative ending -on, serves to diminish the 
degree of the adjective, being therefore equivalent to 
algo, somewhat , rather. Here, also, the diminutive may 
be redundantly used with the adverb. 


independiente, indepetident; abatido, downhearted 


Su novia, que es independientown, 
haee muchas cosas que 4 el no 
le gustan, y esto lo tiene algo 
abatidl llo (or, abatidow). 


His sweetheart, who is rather in¬ 
dependent, does many things he 
does not like, and this keeps him 
somewhat downhearted. 


triste, sad 


<;Que le pasa? Tiene usted una, 
cara iris town. 


What is the matter with you ? 
have a rather sad face. 


You 


subido, high 

El precio de esos articulos me | The price of those articles strikes 
parece subidx to (or, subidow). | me as being rather high. 

liiejor, better 

l Como esta usted? — Estoy mejor- I How are you? —I am a little 
cito. | better. 


5. Diminutive endings often convey the idea of con¬ 
temptibleness or insignificance, while the augmentative end¬ 
ings -ote and -on convey that of repulsiveness or coarseness. 

bajo, short; delgado, thin; grande, large; gordo, fat 
Elhombre era bajito y delgadito; [ The fellow was very short and 
\a mu]er, grandota y gordotn. j thin; the woman, big and fat. 


ignorante, ignorant 


Ese es un viejo ignorantow , con 
quien no es posible discutir un 
asunto de esta clase. 


That is an ignorant old man, with 
whom it is impossible to discuss 
a subject of this kind. 


6. Some diminutive adjectives indicate affection, pity, or 
sympathy. 

querido, dear; pobre, poor 

mi hijo queridx to; mi hermana my darling son; my dearest sister, 
mas queridx ta. 

/Pobre cito Antonio! Poor Anthony! 






18 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§20 


DIMINUTIVE ADVERBS 

16. Although the general properties of the adverb are 
not here under consideration, a passing reference to dimin¬ 
utive adverbs will not be deemed out of place, consider¬ 
ing the close relation they bear to diminutive adjectives. 
The meaning of adverbs, like that of adjectives, may be 
either intensified or diminished by the addition of diminutive 
endings. 

cerca, near; poco, little 

El hotel estd cerqulta. I The hotel is quite near. 

Estoy un poqulto mejor. | I am a little bit better. 


ABSOLUTE SUPERLATIVES 

17. Definition. —The augmentative ending -isimo,-a, 
added to an adjective denotes a high degree of the quality 
expressed by the adjective; it has an effect similar to that of 
the adverb muy, very, but is stronger, and is better ren¬ 
dered by either of the adverbs exceedingly , most. 


cansado, tired; elocuente, eloquent; liberal, liberal 


La senorita Rosa dice que estd can- 
sarfisiiiia. 

Daniel Webster era un orador 
elocuenti&imo. 

Tenemos una constitucion libe- 
ra/isima. 


Miss Rose says she is exceedingly 
tired. 

Daniel Webster was a most elo¬ 
quent orator. 

We have a most liberal consti¬ 
tution . 


These augmentatives, which, unlike others, are adapted to 
serious and elevated as well as to familiar style, are called 
absolute superlatives. The name superlative is given to 
them because they denote a high degree of quality; and this 
name is qualified by the adjective absolute , because they refer 
to the quality itself, regardless of the object or objects 
possessing it. Other superlatives, which will be dealt with 
elsewhere, relate to the comparison of objects with regard to 
properties they have in common. These superlatives are 
called relative superlatives. 

18. The ending -isimo serves also to form absolute 
superlative adverbs, although these are mostly restricted 




§20 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


19 


to familiar style. If the primitive adverb ends in s, this 
letter is transposed and added to the ending. 


tarde, late; temprano, early; lejos, far 


Anoche comimos Am/isimo {bet¬ 
ter, muy tarde ). 

Es tempranx&xnxo {better, muy 
temprano). 

El puerto esta te/isimos {better, 
muy lejos) de aqui. 


We dined very late last evening. 
It is very early. 

The port is exceedingly far from 
here. 


With adverbs in - mente , the ending -isima is added to the 
adjectives from which they are formed. 

Estd grav\$Xm$imente enfermo. I He is very seriously ill. 

Lo hizo facUxsimexmente. | He did it most {or, very) easily. 

19. Irregularly Formed Absolute Superlatives. 
The following classes of adjectives form their absolute 
superlatives in an irregular manner: 

1. Adjectives in -ble lose this ending, which is replaced 
with the ending -bilisimo. 

notable, notable: notabilisimo, exceedingly notable 
probable, probable: probabilisimo, exceedingly probable 

~ The following, however, form the superlative regularly: 

doble, deceitful: doblisimo, exceedingly deceitful 

endeble, weak, delicate: endeblisimo, exceedingly delicate 
feble, feeble: feblisimo, exceedingly feeble 

2. Adjectives ending in -io, the i not being emphatic, 
replace this ending with -isimo. 

limpio, clean: limpisimo, very clean 
sucio, dirty: sucisimo, exceedingly dirty 

agrio, sour: agrisimo, exceedingly sour 

If the i is emphatic, the superlative is formed regularly, 
although the emphasis is transferred to the i of the added 
termination. 

frio, cold: friisimo, exceedingly cold 

3. Most all adjectives having one of the diphthongs ie or 
ue in the syllable next to the last, change it into e or o, 
respectively, before taking the ending. 



20 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§20 


ardiente, ardent: ardentislmo, exceedingly ardent' 
bueno , good: bo nisi m o, exceedingly good 

nuevo, new: novisimo, exceedingly new 


The regular superlatives of such adjectives, however, are 
not uncommon: ard\entisimo, nwevisimo. 

4. Adjectives ending in -fico and accented on the ante¬ 
penultimate syllable, replace this ending with -ficentisimo. 

magnifico, magnificent: magnii icen 1 1 si mo, most magnificent 
malefico, malignant: 7«a/dficentisimo, most malignant 


5. The following superlatives are formed by means of 
the ending -errimo instead of -isimo. As will be observed, 
some of the primitives undergo a notable change of form 
before taking the ending. 


acre, bitter: 
aspero, rough , harsh: 
celebre, celebrated: 
integro, upright: 
libre, free: 
misero, wretched: 
pobre, poor: 
salubre, healthful: 


acerrimo, exceedingly bitter 
asperrimo, exceedingly rough 
celeb6rrimo, very much celebrated 
integerrimo, most upright 
liberrimo, very free 
miserrimo, most wretched 
pauperrinio, exceedingly poor 
saluberrimo, most healthful 


The regular superlatives of these adjectives are equally 
proper, and some of them equally common. 

asper isimo | celebr isimo \ integr tsimo \ pobr isimo 

6. The following are irregular superlatives not included 
in the classes just enumerated: 

antiguo, ancient: antiquisimo, very ancient 

benevolo, benevolent: benevolentisimo, very benevolent 
fiel, faithful: fidelisimo, very faithful 

sabio, wise, learned: sapientisimo, very learned 
sagrado, sacred: sacratisimo, very sacred 

7. The following have both a regular and an irregular 
superlative, of which only the latter is here given: 

amigo, friendly: amicisimo, very friendly 
dificil, difficult: dificilimo, very difficult 
frio, cold: frigidisimo, very cold 


20 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


21 


20. Adjectives Having No Absolute Superlative. 
There are many adjectives from which no absolute super¬ 
lative can be formed; some, because their meaning is not 
susceptible of more or less — primero, first; eterno, eter¬ 
nal; dos, two; — others, because the superlative formed from 
them would be difficult to pronounce, or would have a harsh 
or otherwise unpleasant sound. Among adjectives of the- 
latter class may be mentioned: 

1. Those that end in -eo, -imo, -ico (except those in -fico ), 
-fero, and are accented on the antepenultimate syllable. 

extemporaneo, extemporaneous I clnico, cynical 

legitimo, legitimate \ aurifero, gold bearing 

2. Those ending in -z or -uo (except antiguo , for which 
see Art. 19, 6). 

baladi, trivial \ carmesl, crimson | arduo, arduous \ oblicuo, oblique 

3. Augmentatives and diminutives. 

4. Adjectives indicating comparison. 

mayor, greater \ menor, less | peor, worse 

In case of doubt, the student should use the adverb muy, 
very, instead of the ending -isimo. With adjectives of the 
class mentioned under 4, however, mucho, much , takes the 
place of muy. 


INFLECTION OF ADJECTIVES FOR NUMBER 
AND GENDER 


NUMBER 

21. The plural form of adjectives is obtained from the 
singular by the same rules that were given for substantives. 
The following are the only exceptions: 

aquel, yonder: plural , aquellos 

cualquiera, any: plural , cualesquiera 
el, the: plural , los 

ese, that: plural , esos 

este, this: plural , estos 




22 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


20 


GENDER 

22. General Rule.— All adjectives in -o, -an, -on, -or; 

diminutive adjectives in -ete and augmentatives in -ote, and 
adjectives of nationality ending in a consonant , form the feminine 
by the addition of -a, or by replacing their last vowel with -a, 


according as their last letter is a 
adjectives have the same form for 

el libro rojo; la mesa roja 
un hombre holgazan; ««a mujer 
holgazana 

un nino jugueton; unn nina 
juguetona 

un programa halagador; una pro¬ 
mesa halagadora 
un hombre grandote; un a mujer 
grandota 

el idioma espanol; la nacion es- 
panola 

el gobierno frances; la musica 
francesa 

un pais agricola; unix region 
agricola 

un soldado valiente; 7/«a mujer 
valiente 

un traje carmesi; untx, nube car- 
mesi 

un instrumento util; «#a leccion 
util 

un hombre joven; ««a mujer 
joven 

un eampo circular; unVi figura 
circular 

El es feliz; Ella es feliz 


consonant or a vowel. All other 
both genders. 

the red book; the red table 
a lazy fellow; a lazy woman 

a playful boy; a playful girl 

an attractive program; an attract¬ 
ive promise 

a coarse big man; a coarse big 
woman 

the Spanish language; the Span¬ 
ish nation 

the French government; French 
music 

an agricultural country; an agri¬ 
cultural region 

a brave soldier; a brave woman 

a crimson dress; a crimson cloud 

a useful instrument; a useful 
lesson 

a young man; a young woman 
a circular field; a circular figure 
He is happy; She is happy 


23. Exceptions. — 1. Comparative adjectives ending' in 
-or have but one form. The principal ones are: 

anterior, anterior, front 
exterior, exterior, outer 
inferior, inferior, lower 
interior, interior, inner 
mayor, greater 


mejor, better 
menor, smaller 
peor, worse 

posterior, posterior, back 
superior, superior, upper 




20 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


23 


2. As stated in another place, the adjectives el, the; este, 
this; ese, that; aquel, yonder , have the feminine forms la , 


esta, esa, aquella, respectively. 

3. Cardinal numerals in -o 
ending in -uno. 

cuatro bailarinas 
veintiocho hermanas de caridad 
veintiunix ciudades 


are invariable, except those 

four dancing girls 
twenty-eight sisters of charity 
twenty-one cities 


4. Plural adjectives ending in -os change this ending 
to -as for the feminine. 


ambos, ambas, both | muchos, rnuchas, many 


5. Some adjectives in -dor and -tor have a regular fem¬ 
inine form obtained by the addition of -a, and an irregular 
form obtained by substituting -triz for those endings. 


motor, moving, motive; acelerador, accelerating 


La ambicion es la fuerza mo triz 
del progreso. 

La gravedad es una fuerza acele- 

ratriz. 


Ambition is the motive power of 
progress. 

Gravity is an accelerating force. 


THE DEMONSTRATIVES ESTE, ESE, AQUEL 


ADJECTIVAL USES OF THESE DEMONSTRATIVES 


24. The demonstratives este, ese, aquel are used under the 
same general circumstances as the neuter pronouns esto, eso, 
aquello, except that they are adjectives instead of substan¬ 
tives. They are the equivalents of the English adjectives 
this, that, yonder, respectively. 


Este reloj me costo cien pesos. 

iCuando recibio usted esa carta? 
iNo ve usted aquella canoa en el 
otro la do del rio? 


This watch cost me a hundred 
dollars. 

When did you receive that letter? 
Do you not see yonder canoe on 
the other side of the river? 


25. As the purpose of these demonstratives is to make 
the substantives to which they refer determinate, by pointing 
out the position of things, or the place of words in discourse, 







24 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§20 


they are unnecessary before substantives followed by modi¬ 
fiers that serve the same purpose. Under such circum¬ 
stances, it is better to use the definite article instead of a 
demonstrative adjective. The form given in the first example 
of each of the following pairs is preferable to the second. 
Although the latter form is grammatically correct, it is 
inelegant and should be avoided. 


El lapiz que yo tengo no sirve. 

Este lapiz que yo tengo no sirve. 

El libro que esta sobre la mesa 
es mio. 

Ese libro que esta sobre la mesa 
es mio. 

iConoce usted a la senora de 
quien le acabo de hablar? 

dConoce usted a esa senora de 
quien le acabo de hablar? 


j The pencil I have is not good. 
[This pencil I have is not good. 
The book that is on the table is 
mine. 

That book which is on the table 
. is mine. 

Do you know the lady of whom 
I have just spoken to you? 

Do you know that lady of wh.om 
I have just spoken to you? 


26. Referring to far-off things, or to events that hap¬ 
pened in the remote past or will happen in the distant future, 
aquel is preferable to ese. 


Nuestro viaje al traves de la Pata¬ 
gonia fue muy desagradable, 
pues en aquella (or, esa) region 
hay pocos caminos f recursos. 

La vista de aquel monte majes- 
tuoso nos lleno de admiracion. 

Las leyes romanas empezaron a 
compilarse bajo Justiniano, que 
ordeno la redaccion del Codigo. 
Aun en nuestros dias hay pocas 
naciones que no hayan sacado 
algunas de sus leyes de aquel 
documento inmortal. 

En aquellos tiempos no habia gas 
ni luz eleetriea. 

La gente de aquella epoca negaba 
la redondez de la tierra. 


Our journey across Patagonia was 
very unpleasant, for in that 
region there are few roads and 
resources. 

The sight of that majestic moun¬ 
tain filled us with admiration. 

The Roman laws began to be 
compiled under Justinian, who 
ordered the editing of the Code. 
Even in our own day there are 
few nations that have not taken 
some of their laws from that 
immortal document. 

In those times there was neither 
gas nor electric light. 

The people of that time denied 
the roundness of the earth. 


27. Este , like the English this , applies to a period of 
time including the present. 


este siglo, this century 


esta semana, this week 








§20 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


25 


It is also used in the expressions, 

esta manana, this morning | esta noche, this evening , tonight 
esta tarde, this afternoon 


28. Este , ese, aquel are usually placed before the modified 
substantive. This order is reversed in familiar style, as a 
mark of contempt or indifference. The demonstrative does 
not then perform the function of pointing out the thing 
referred to, although it indicates that that thing is known 
to the listener, or has been already mentioned. The definite 
article should always precede a substantive modified and fol¬ 
lowed,by a demonstrative, and, if the circumstances are not 
sufficient to determine the thing denoted by this substantive, 
a modifying phrase must be added. With reference to a 
man of whom two persons have been talking, one of them 
may say, 


El hombre ese no parece muy bien 
informado. 

Referring to a woman who 
sometime ago, one may say, 

La vieja aquella de que usted 
me hablo el otro dia estuvo aqui 
esta manana. 

Similarly, 

El negocio este de que le he 
eslado hablando no asciende a 
mucho. 


That fellow does not seem very 
well posted. 

was the subject of conversation 

That old woman of whom you 
spoke to me the other day was 
here this morning. 


The business of which I have 
been speaking to you does not 
amount to much. 


29. Aquel is used with reference to a well-known or oft- 
repeated saying, proverb, or the like, in the same sense as 
the English that. 


Aquel dicho de Socrates, “Cono- 
cete a ti mismo.” 

Repite a menudo aquella maxima 
estoica, que la virtud es una ley 
de la naturaleza. 


That saying of Socrates, “Know 
thyself.” 

He often repeats that Stoical 
maxim, that virtue is a law of 
nature. 






26 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§20 


. Aquello de and lo de are used in a similar manner, their 
application being more general, as the neuters aquello and lo 
may include such ideas as the fact, the case , the saying , etc., 


as the case may be. 

Aquello de , “Conocete a ti mis- 
mo." 

Lo de que Colon creia en la exis- 
tencia del Nuevo Mundo es una 
fantasia de sus admiradores. 

Yo no creo en aquello de que la 
virtud es en si misma una re- 
compensa. 


The saying, “Know thyself.’’ 

The statement that Columbus be¬ 
lieved in the existence of the 
New World is a fancy of his 
admirers. 

I do not believe what is often 
said —that virtue is in itself a 
reward. 


THE SUBSTANTIVIZED DEMONSTRATIVES 
ESTE, ESE, AQUEL 

30. When este, ese, aquel are used substantively, an accent 
mark is placed over the emphatic vowel of each. These 
substantivized adjectives differ from other adjectives used 
substantively in that they do not take the definite article. 


Esta factura llego ayer; ha llego 
antier. 

Llevele este cheque al senor G6- 
mez, y Iste al doctor Verea. 
Aquella es la casa que buscamos. 


This invoice arrived yesterday; 
that one arrived the day before 
yesterday. 

Take this check to Mr. Gomez, 
and this one to Doctor Verea. 

That is the house we are look¬ 
ing for. 


31. When applied to people, este , ese , aquel imply disre¬ 
spect or contemptuousness, and, unless they are expressly 
employed for this purpose, should be avoided. 

dQuien es ese? Who is that fellow? 

Alii viene aquella. There comes that woman. 


32. In the plural, however, aquellos is perfectly proper 
as the equivalent of the substantivized article los (Art. 43), 
although the latter is preferable except before a preposition. 
Aquellos is then rendered by those. 


Aquellos que han estudiado la 
situacion opinan que no es tan 
seria como parece. 


Those who have studied the situa¬ 
tion think that it is not so seri¬ 
ous as it seems. 







20 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


27 


Esta es una obra muy util para 
todos aquUlos que tienen nego- 
cios en la Argentina. 

El pueblo cometio el error de 
quitar el poder a aquHlos bajo 
cuyo gobierno el pais habla 
hecho tantos progresos. 


This is a very useful work for 
all those doing business in the 
Argentine. 

The people committed the error of 
taking the power away from 
those under whose government 
the country had made so much 
progress. 


33. In correspondence, Ssta is used in the sense of esta 
ciudad, this city , or esta carta, this letter , and esa, in the 
sense of esa ciudad, that city , the city where you are; the 
context always indicates which substantive is to be under¬ 
stood. Other adjectives are likewise substantivized in 
letter writing; carta, letter , being understood. 


Acaba de llegar k teta un vapor 
espanol, que seguird manana 
para Isa. 

En mi prbxima le escribire m&s 
detalladamente sobre ese asun- 
to, pues tsta ya esta demasiado 
larga. 


A Spanish steamer has just ar¬ 
rived at this place, and will 
proceed to that city tomorrow. 

In my next letter I shall write to 
you more in detail about that 
matter, for this one is already 
too long. 


34. The substantivized demonstrative pronouns often 
take the place of the corresponding neuter demonstratives. 

Eso es un ldpiz. | That is a pencil. 

Here eso means ese otojeto, that object , and, logically, is 
the only permissible demonstrative. Usage, however, sanc¬ 
tions the use of the substantivized adjective Sse instead: 
Ese es un Idpiz. Although, literally, this sentence means, 
That pencil is a pencil , the masculine ese must here be inter¬ 
preted as being the equivalent of the neuter eso. 


THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS ESTE, AQUEL 

35. These two words, when used as substantives (not 
as substantivized adjectives), become demonstrative pro¬ 
nouns meaning the latter and the former , respectively. It 
will be observed that the order of reference in Spanish is the 
reverse of the English order. 





28 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


20 


En cuanto a las m&quinas de 
coser y los arados, istos sal- 
dran manana, y aquHlas la 
semana entrante. 

Los Estados Unidos pueden es- 
tablecer grandes relaciones co- 
merciales con los palses hispano- 
americanos, pues lo que estos 
mas necesitan es precisamente 
lo que aquellos mas producen. 


As to the sewing machines and 
the plows, the latter will leave 
tomorrow, and the former next 
week. 

The United States may establish 
extensive commercial relations 
with the Spanish-A m e r i c a n 
countries, as what the latter 
most need is just what the 
former most produces. 


THE ARTICLES 


THE DEFINITE ARTICLE 

36. Forms of tlie Article. — The definite article has 
the following forms, all of which are rendered by the: 


masculine singular, el feminine singular, la 

masculine plural, los feminine plural, las 


37. Contractions. — As already stated, the prepositional 
phrases d el , de el are contracted into al and del , respectively. 
When, however, the article forms part of a name or title, 
the contraction does not take place. 


Enviea “A/Imparcial” de Madrid 
un ejemplar de { ‘El Cristiano.” 

He leido una descripcion de El 
Dorado, pais fabuloso eu que el 
oro era mas abundante que las 
piedras. 


I sent a copy of “The Christian” 
to “The Impartial” of Madrid. 

I have read a description of El 
Dorado, a fabulous country in 
which gold was more abundant 
than stones. 


Some good authorities prefer the full form de el to the 
contraction del , when the article is substantivized, and the con¬ 
traction is followed by another of the same form. The 
object of replacing the first del by de el is to avoid the 
unpleasant sound of two consecutive identical syllables. 

El clima de los tropicos es muy The climate of the tropics is very 
diferente de el del polo. different from that of the pole. 

38. The following contractions, which today are per¬ 
missible in poetry only, were formerly used instead of the 
respective phrases: 







20 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


29 


dese, deso for de ese, de eso, of that 
deste, desto for de este, de esto, of this 
d£l for de el, of him 

della for de ella, of her 

dello for de ello, of it 

39. The Masculine Form of the Article Before 
Feminine Nouns. —As stated elsewhere, nouns beginning 
with an emphatic a-sound take the masculine instead of the 
feminine form of the article. Some authors say that this 
rule applies only to true substantives, not to substantivized 
adjectives, and they give examples like this: 

la torre baja y la alia | the low tower and the high one 


Here, however, what is really substantivized is the article, 
not the adjective. (Art. 6, 3.) The rule has the following 
exceptions: 

1. La a , la hache —names of the letters a and respect¬ 
ively—are preferable to el a, el hache. 

2. The Spanish name of the Dutch city, the Hague, is 
la Hay a, not el Hay a. 

3. Proper names of women, which, as will be presently 
explained, are often preceded by the article, never take the 
masculine form el: la Alvarez , la Angela. 


40. Uses of the Definite Article With Common 
Nouns.— With common nouns, the definite article is used: 

1. To indicate that a noun refers to some particular or 
definite object or group of objects among those of which 
the noun is a name; which object or group is supposed to 
be known to the listener or reader, either from its having 
been already mentioned, or from some other circumstance, 
such as position, prominence, or importance. 


Sobre mi escritorio hay una carta 
y cuatro circulares: traigame la 
carta , y llevele las circulares 
k mi socio. 

;Piensa usted ir k la ciudad hoy? 


There is a letter and four circu¬ 
lars on my desk: bring me the 
letter, and take the circulars to 
my partner. 

Do you intend to go to the city 
today? 



30 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


20 


El presidente murio anoche. 

Hay cuatro vapores anclados en 
el rio, y diez en la bahia. 


The president died last night. 
There are four steamers anchored 
in the river, and ten in the bay. 


2. When a noun is taken in its most general signification; 
that is, in statements applying to all things included in the 
class denoted by the noun, if the noun is the general name of 
a class of things {man, table)-, or to the one thing denoted 
by the noun, if the noun denotes but one thing ( nature, air). 
This rule comprises nouns of all kinds, whether they express 
material things, abstract conceptions, or any other objects of 
thought whatever. In the translations of the examples that 
follow, those nouns that take the article in Spanish, but not 
in English, are printed in Italic. As the use of the article 
forms one of the most important grammatical differences 
between the two languages, the student should pay special 
attention to the correspondence of the nouns thus printed. 


El oro es un metal. 

El hombre , como el mono , esta 
sujeto a las leyes de la natura- 
leza. 

Ea electricidad y la mecanica 
hicieron grandes progresos en 
el siglo pasado. 

Cesar decia que las miserias de 
la vida acaban con la muerte. 

La experiencia es la madre de 
la sabiduria. 

La historia se repite. 

Los americanos son muy em- 
prendedores. 

El domingo es el primer dia de la 
semana. 

El verano me gusta mas que el 
invierno. 

La materia es eterna. 

Draper escribio un libro titulado 
“Conflicto entre la religion y 
la ciencia .” 

^Que son el destino y la fortuna, 
sino nombres que la ignorancia 
ha dado & las leyes de la natu- 
raleza? 


Gold is a metal. 

Man, like the ape, is subject to 
the laws of nature. 

Electricity and mechanics made 
great progress in the last cen¬ 
tury. 

Caesar used to say that the miseries 
of life end with death. 

Experience is the mother of wis¬ 
dom. 

History repeats itself. 

Americans are very enterprising. 

Sunday is the first day of the 
week. 

I like summer better than winter. 

Matter is eternal. 

Draper wrote a book entitled 
“Conflict between Religion and 
Science. ’ ’ 

What are destiny and fortune, but 
names that ignorance has given 
to the laws of nature? 




20 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


31 


"La metaflsica no ha podido aun 
contestar estas preguntas impor- 
tantes: “^Que es el espacio? 
ique es el tiempo ?" 

El sol sale por el oriente y se 
pone por el occidente. 

El amor es la pasion dominante 
de los espanoles. 

La imagination es una facultad 
maravillosa. 

Los animates son a veces mas 
generosos que los hombres. 

Los negros no son progresistas. 

Parece que solo la guerra puede 
poner fin a las disputas entre el 
capital y el trabajo. 

;Que es el sotialismo? 

<rCuales son las funeiones del 
gobierno en un pals republi- 
cgno? 

Todos los derechos son formas 
de la libertad. 

El corazon es un organo irnpor- 
tantlsimo. 

Nosotros los americanos somos 
muy aficionados a los negocios. 

Ustedes los matematicos prestan 
mas atencion a la teoria que a 
la practica. 

La viruela no es absolutamente 
incurable. 


Metaphysics has not yet been 
able to answer these important 
questions: “What is space? what 
is time?" 

The sun rises in the east and sets 
in the west. 

Love is the dominant passion of 
the Spaniards. 

Imagination is a wonderful fac¬ 
ulty. 

Animals are sometimes more gen¬ 
erous than men. 

Negroes are not progressive. 

It seems that only war can put an 
end to the disputes between 
capital and labor. 

What is socialism? 

What are the functions of govern¬ 
ment in a republican country? 

All rights are forms of liberty. 

The heart is a most important 
organ. 

We Americans are very fond of 
business. 

You mathematicians give more 
attention to theory than to prac¬ 
tice. 

The smallpox is not absolutely 
incurable. 


Explanations and Exceptions. — {a) The names of the 
months do not take the definite article. 

Abril es el cuarto mes del ano. j April is the fourth month of the 

year. 

(b) Nouns taken in a partitive or absolutely negative 
sense —that is, when either of the adjectives alguno, some, or 
ninguno, not any , is understood before them do not prop¬ 
erly come under the rule given above, and are used without 
the article. In the following examples, the adjectives under¬ 
stood, or that can be introduced without changing the sense 
of the sentence, are enclosed in brackets: 



32 SPANISH GRAMMAR §20 


Hay [algunos] hombres que 
difieren poco de lo^ monos. 

Cuba exporta [algtin] tabaco y 
aziicar. 

No tengo [ningun] dinero. 

.jTiene usted [algunos] instru- 
mentos astronbmicos f 

Nosotros vendemos [algunos] im- 
plementos de agriculture/.. 

Deme [algun] pan. 

La Argentina produce [algun] 
trigo , came y tana. 

No tengo [nada de] tiempo para 
ir al teatro esta noche. 

Esa joven tiene [algun] talento, 
pero le falta [alguna] aplica- 
cion. 


There are [some] men that differ 
little from the apes. 

Cuba exports [some] tobacco and 
sugar. 

I have no money. 

Have you any astronomical 
instruments? 

We sell [some] agricultural im¬ 
plements. 

Give me some bread. 

The Argentine produces [some] 
wheat, beef, and wool. 

I have no time to go to the theater 
tonight. 

That young lady has [some] 
talent, but she lacks [some] 
application. 


When, however, ninguno may be introduced, not as a quan¬ 
titative adjective, as in the examples just given, but as a 
qualitative adjective; that is, not with reference to number 
or quantity, but with reference to quality, the article is not 
omitted. 

No me gusta el vino. (No me I do not like wine. (I like no 
gusta ningun vino.) wine.) 


Here ningun means ninguna elase tie, no kind of. 

( c ) The article is omitted before the names of personified 
things. 

Diole Naturaleza gran talento y 
ambicion sin limites, asi como 
un corazon cruel. 

For tuna, como una coqueta, halla 
placer en etiganar a los que la 
buscan. 

(d) The article is omitted in some proverbs. This omis- . 
sion adds force to the expression by giving it the concise, 
laconic, and, in a certain manner, dogmatic form of a maxim. 

A menudo pagan justos por peca- The innocent often pay for the 
dores. guilty. 


Nature gave him a great talent 
and ambition without limit, as 
well as a cruel heart. 

Fortune, like a coquette, takes 
pleasure in deceiving those who 
seek her. 







§20 Spanish Grammar 33 


(p) In enumerations, especially if they are of a contrast¬ 
ing character, the omission of the article gives emphasis and 
elegance to the phrase, although, according to sections 
1 and 2, its employment is. correct. 


“ Gloria , honor , libertad, sagra- 
dos nombres 

que veneran los hombres, 

ique fueron parati?” 

Ricos y pobres, capitalistas y traba- 
jadores , tiranos y esclavos — todos 
son movidos por el egoismo. 

Los invasores mataron a hombres 
y mujeres, nihos y viejos, sin 
distincion de sexo ni de edad. 

Padre e hijo murieron en el cadalso 
sin lanzar una queja. 


“Glory, honor, liberty, sacred 
names 

That men revere, 

What were they to thee?” 

Rich and poor, capitalists and 
workingmen, tyrants and slaves 
— they are all prompted by self¬ 
ishness. 

The invaders killed men and 
women, young'and old, without 
distinction of sex or age. 

Father and son perished on the 
scaffold without uttering a com¬ 
plaint. 


3. Before a noun modified by a restrictive adjective or 
adjectival phrase limiting the application of the noun to a 
determinate thing or group of things. 


El caballo que usted me 
mando es muy hermoso. 

Eos caballeros eon quienes 
comimos anoclie son muy 
alegres. 

El hombre sin lionor es peor 
que el hombre sin educa¬ 
tion. 

La juventud es el abril de la 

vida. 

El vies pa sad o recibi una carta 
de mi padre en que me dice que 
vendra a vernos el aho que 
vieiie {or, el aho entrante). 


The horse you sent me is very 
handsome. 

The gentlemen with whom we 
dined last night are very lively. 

A man without honor is worse 
than a man without education. 

Youth is the April of life. 

Last month I received a letter 
from my father in which he tells 
me that he will come to see us 
next year. 


Explanations and Exceptions. — (a) Demonstrative 
and possessive adjectives exclude the definite article, except 
when placed after the noun (Art. 28). 


ese hombre, el hombre ese 
mis deudas, las deudas mias 


that man 
my debts 





34 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


20 


( b) Indefinite adjectives, which do not restrict the appli¬ 
cation of the noun to any determinate thing or class of things 
among those denoted by the noun, are excluded from the 
rule, and the nouns they modify do not take the definite 
article, even if followed by a restrictive modifier. 


Muchos pasajeros perecieron. 

Esta costumbre no se observa sino 
entre algnnos salvajes del 
Africa Central. 

Ninguna persona que co- 
nozca los lieclios puede 
negar la gran probabilidad de 
la teoria darwiniana. 


Many passengers perished. 

This custom is observed only 
among some savages of Central 
Africa. 

No person that knows the facts 
can deny the great probability 
of the Darwinian theory. 


When, however, the partitive sense of these adjectives is 
made explicit by means of the preposition de, the noun should 
be preceded by the article. 


Muchos de los pasajeros pere¬ 
cieron. 

Cualquiera de los oficiales puede 
dar a usted los informes que 
usted desea. 


Many of the passengers perished. 

Any of the officers may give you 
the information you desire. 


( c) The adjective todo, all, requires some special expla¬ 
nation. When it modifies a plural noun, the noun should be 
preceded by the definite article. 


Todos los planetas giran al rede- 
dor del sol. 

Todas las ciencias estan intima- 
mente ligadas entre si. 

Todos los movimientos sociologi- 
cos son fenomenos naturales. 

No todos los versos son poesia. 

Nosotros vamos al teatro todas 
las noches. 

Pasamos todos los diciembres en 
el campo. 

£l viene a verme todos los do- 
mingos. 


All the planets revolve around 
the sun. 

All the sciences are intimately 
related to one another. 

All sociological movements are 
natural phenomena. 

Not all verses are poetry. 

We go to the theater every eve¬ 
ning. 

We spend all Decembers in the 
country. 

He comes to see me every Sunday. 


In the last two examples, todos may be omitted. 

Pasamos los diciembres en el campo. 

El viene a verme los domingos. 





20 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


35 


When the singular todo is used distributively in the sense 
of every , it excludes the article. 


Todo negocio es m&s 6 menos 
incierto . 

Toda regia tiene excepciones. 


Every business is more or less 
uncertain. 

Every rule has exceptions. 


The singular form todo , placed before a noun which, by the 
nature of the thing it denotes, can have no plural, indicates 
that the noun is ‘taken in all its generality. The same idea 
is expressed by the article; but, while todo may be omitted 
and the article used alone, the latter should not be omitted 
when the former is used. 


Toda la naturaleza proclama la 
ley de la evolucion. 

Todo el cielo esta cubierto de 
estrellas. 

No todo el carbdn se extrae de las 
minas americanas. 

In the following examples, in 

sense of the whole, the article is 

No dormi en toda la noche. 

El medico estuvo aqui todo el 
dia. 


All nature proclaims the law of 
evolution. 

All the sky is covered with stars. 

Not all coal is extracted from the 
American mines. 

which todo is also used in the 
necessary. 

I did not sleep any all night. 

The physician was here the whole 
day. 


(d) With reference to dates (in which, with the exception 
of primero, first , the cardinal numerals are used instead of 
the ordinal), the article is not employed either in dating a 
letter or in giving the date of a day that is otherwise speci¬ 


fied, as by naming it (lunes 
etc.). 

Quito, sets de enero de 1893. 

Si ayer fue catorce , hoy es quince. 

El s&bado de la semana pasada 
fue primero. 

Llegamos a Londres el ocho de 
mayo. 

La independence fue declarada I 
el cuatro de julio. 


, Monday; martes, Tuesday; 

Quito, January the sixth, 1893. 

If yesterday was the fourteenth, 
today is the fifteenth. 

Saturday of last week was the 
first. 

We arrived at London on the 
eighth of May. 

Independence was declared on 
the fourth of July. 






36 SPANISH GRAMMAR §20 

(<?) The article is similarly omitted before any numeral 
placed after the noun it modifies. 


Luis Catorce, rey de Francia 

Louis the Fourteenth, king of 
France 

libro cuarto, capitulo segundo 

book the fourth, chapter the sec¬ 
ond 


Formerly, however, ordinals placed after the names of 
sovereigns were preceded by the article, as they are in 


English. 


Alejandro el Sexto, Carlos el 
Quinto 

Alexander the Sixth, Charles the 
Fifth 


4. Before the names of parts of a person’s body or wear¬ 
ing apparel. In these cases the article is usually rendered 
by an English possessive adjective. 


Me duele la cabeza. 

Sufro del higado. 

No se quite el sombrero. 

<;Cuanto dinero tiene usted en el 
bolsillo? 

Lo hirieron en la espalda. 

Derne la mano. 

My head aches. 

I am suffering from my liver. 

Do not remove your hat. 

How much money have you in 
your pocket? 

He was wounded in the back. 

Give me your hand. 


Exception. —In idiomatic expressions like the following, 
the article may be either used or omitted: 


Usted tiene el pelo negro. 

Your hair is black {or, You have 
black hair). 

Esa senorita tiene las manos muy 
pequenas. 

That young lady has very small 
hands. 

When, however, the noun 
adjective or adjectival phrase, 

is preceded by a modifying 
the article should be omitted. 

Su amiga tiene muy bonitos 
ojos. 

El liombre que acababa de entrar 
tenia. ancho pecho y muscu- 
losos miembros. 

Your lady friend has very pretty 
eyes. 

The man who had just come in 
had a broad chest and muscular 
limbs. 


5. Before the first twelve cardinal numerals to express 
the hour of day. 







20 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


37 


Son las siete. 

Llegamos a las cinco y cuarto. 
Aun no es la una. 

Faltan veinticinco minutos para 
las ires. 


It is seven o’clock. 

We arrived at a quarter past five. 
It is not one yet. 

It lacks twenty-five minutes of 
three. 


6. Before an infinitive or an infinitive phrase used as a 
noun taken in its most general signification, or modified by a 
restrictive adjective or adjectival phrase. These are but special 
cases of those stated in 2 and 3, above. The employment 
of the article before an unmodified infinitive, however, is not 
necessary, and while in some cases it is conducive to elegance, 
in other cases, on the contrary, it has the opposite effect. 
No definite rule can be given in this respect, except that in 
cases of doubt the article should preferably be dispensed 
with. As already explained, the infinitive is a neuter, and 
therefore must be constructed with the masculine singular 
form of the article. 


El hacer una promesa es f&cil; 
pero no siempre es tan f&cil el 
cumplirla. 

Cuando el vivir es un infortunio, 
el morir es una bendicidn. 

El cantar de los poetas no es 
siempre tan natural como el 
cantar de las aves. 


It is easy to make a promise, but 
it is not always so easy to 
keep it. 

When living is a misfortune, dying 
is a blessing. 

The singing of poets is not always 
so natural as the singing of 
birds. 


In the first two examples, in which the infinitive is not 
modified by a restrictive adjective or phrase, the article may 
be omitted. 


7. Before the name of a unit, in stating the rate of 
prices or values, the price or value of the unit being taken 
as a basis. The student’s attention is especially called to 
the differences between the Spanish and the English forms 
of expression. The Spanish preposition d , like the English 
at , denotes rate. 


Vend! esos sombreros k treinta 
pesos la docena. 

El azucar cuesta hoy k diez cen¬ 
tavos la libra. 


I sold those hats at thirty dollars 
a dozen. 

Today, sugar costs ten cents a 
pound. 





38 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


20 


Quiere que le compremos esos 
cigarros k cinco pesos el ciento. 

Hoy esta el carbon a quince pesos 

- la tonelada. 

A mi me pagan ochocientos pesos 
al mes. 

En ese hotel cobran veinte pesos 
k la semana. 


He wishes us to buy those cigars 
from him at fifteen dollars a 
hundred. 

Coal sells ( literally, is) today at 
fifteen dollars a ton. 

They pay me eight hundred dol¬ 
lars a month. 

At that hotel they charge twenty 
dollars a week. 


Explanations and Exceptions.— (a) If the preposition 
por, per, is used instead of d, the article is dispensed with. 

Vendi esos sombreros a treinta pesos por docena. 

A mi me pagan ochocientos pesos por mes. 


(b) In commercial language, both the article and the 
preposition por are often omitted in stating prices. 

Vendi esos sombreros 4 treinta pesos docena. 

Hoy esta el carbon k quince pesos tonelada. 


8. Before a number followed by the phrase por ciento, 
per cent. In this case, however, the use of the article is 


optional. 

Las letras estdn al (or, a) veinti- 
cinco poi* ciento. 

El noventa por ciento (or, No- 
venta por ciento) de los 
irlandeses son catolicos. 

Mas del (or, de) cuarenta por 
ciento de los barriles llegaron 
abiertos. 


Drafts are now at twenty-five per 
cent. 

Ninety per cent, of the Irish are 
Catholics. 

More than forty per cent, of the 
barrels arrived opened. 


Explanations and Exceptions.— (a) If the phrase 
stating the percentage is preceded by a noun modified by 
the indefinite article, the definite article should not be used. 


Le daremos un descuento de 
veinte por ciento (or, un veinte 
por ciento de descuento). 

El oro americano tiene ahora un 
premio de doscientos cincuenta 
por ciento. 


We shall give you a discount of 
twenty per cent. 

American gold has now a pre¬ 
mium of two hundred and fifty 
per cent. 


( b ) The indefinite article is often employed instead of 
the definite, except after the preposition d. 





20 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


39 


Un noventa por ciento de los irlandeses son catolicos. 

Mas de un cuarenta por ciento de los barriles llegaron abiertos. 

Remark.— As this is a somewhat complicated subject, on which no 
fixed rules can be given, the student should, in cases of doubt, omit 
the article entirely. 

9. Before the partitive numeral mitad, half. 


La mitad de las fabricas estan 
cerradas. 


Half of the factories are closed. 


10. Before the partitive phrases tercera parte, one- 
third; cuarta parte, one-fourth; etc., when they refer to one 
part of an object independently of the other parts; that is, 
when the other parts are not mentioned. 


lia tercera parte del ferrocarril 
esta terminada. 

ILas dos quintas partes de la 
ciudad fueron destruidas. 

Las exportaciones de ese pais son 
menos de las tres dicimas 
partes de las importaciones. 


One-third of the railroad is fin¬ 
ished. 

Two-fifths of the city was de¬ 
stroyed. 

The exports of that country are 
less than three-tenths of the 
imports. 


but 


Deme una cuarta parte de ese 
dinero en oro, y las otras tres 
cuartas partes en billetes. 

Dos setimas partes de la tripula- 
cion eran blancos; las otras cinco 
setimas partes se componian de 
indios y negros. 


Give me one-fourth of that money 
in gold, and the other three- 
fourths in bills. 

Two-sevenths of the crew were 
white; the other five-sevenths 
consisted of Indians and ne¬ 
groes. 


Remark. —The phrases tercera parte , cuarta parte , etc., literally 
mean one-third part , one-fourth part, etc., and should not be con¬ 
founded with the numbers nn tercio, one-third; un cuarto, one- 
fourth; etc., which will be treated in connection with numerals. 


11. Before a noun restrictively modifying another noun 
and immediately following or preceding the latter. This rule 
applies to all titles of address and of office; to nouns 
denoting a profession or occupation; to descriptive nouns 
that, having been used to characterize certain persons, 
especially sovereigns, have become parts of their names, 
and finally, to substantivized adjectives. 





40 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


20 


El senor Quesada ha regresado 
de Cuba. 

El doctor Rodriguez y el general 
Restrepo fueron presentados a 
la reina Victoria por el maris- 
cal de campo Roberts. 

Antonino el Filosofo y Juliano el 
Apostata fueron grandes empe- 
radores. 

Mi primo el zapatero vive en la 
casa siguiente. 

Pacha la francesa me vendio estos 
panuelos. 

El joven Cervera piensa estudiar 
ingenieria. 

Le di diez centavos a Carlos el 
ciego. 

el rio Hudson, el monte San 
Elias 


Mr. Quesada has returned from 
Cuba. 

Doctor Rodriguez and General 
Restrepo were presented to 
Queen Victoria by Field-Marshal 
Roberts. 

Antoninus the Philosopher and 
Julian the Apostate were great 
emperors. 

My cousin, the shoemaker, lives 
in the next house. 

Fannie, the Frenchwoman, sold 
me these handkerchiefs. 

Young Cervera intends to study 
engineering. 

I gave ten cents to Charles, the 
blind man. 

the Hudson river, Mount St. Elias 


Exceptions.— (a) When a person is addressed, either in 
speech or in writing, by his title and name, or by his title 
alone, the article is dispensed with. It will be noticed that 
senor does not exclude other titles. 


Senor general Maximo Gomez, 
Santiago. 

Capitan Parra, el general desea 
hablarle. 

Doctor Mendoza, .justed que opina 
de la propagacion de la fiebre 
por el mosquito? 


General Maximo Gomez, Santiago. 

Captain Parra, the general wishes 
to speak to you. 

Doctor Mendoza, what do you 
think of the propagation of 
fever by the mosquito? 


( b ) The following titles exclude the article: 

don, dona | lord, lord 

fray, brother {of a religions order) madama, madarne 

frey, brother {of a military order) \ sor, sister {of a religious order ) 

To these must be added the French monsieur , the English 
Mr. and sir, and the German herr. 


los escritos de monsieur Rochefort 
los descubrimientos de sir William 
Thomson 

la filosofia de Mr. Spencer 


the writings of M. Rochefort 
the discoveries of Sir William 
Thomson 

the philosophy of Mr. Spencer 





§20 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


41 


12. As a substitute for the possessive adjective su used 
in the third person —that is, when this possessive means his, 
her, their— before a noun denoting- relationship. This is 
done mainly to avoid ambiguity, as su has several meanings. 


Don Antonio estuvo aqui con la 
senora. 

El senor Ortiz y las hijas acaban 
de salir. 


Mr. Anthony was here with his 
wife. 

Mr. Ortiz and his daughters have 
just gone out. 


13. Before a noun followed by a prepositional phrase 
with de indicating possession. This is but a special case of 
the general rule laid down in 3. 


la casa de mi hermano 
el libro de listed 
las tiendas de ellos 


my brother’s house 
your book 
their stores 


41. Use of tlie Definite Article Before a Sub¬ 
stantive Proposition Introduced by Que. — This use 
of the article is illustrated by the following examples: 


El que el gobierno republicano 
tenga algunos defectos no im- 
plica que sea el peor sistema. 

El que el lo haya dicho no prueba 
que ello sea cierto. 

El que la tierra gira al redcdor 
del sol es un hecho demostrado. 

Contribuyo mucho al triunfo el 
que los americanos estuviesen 
bieti preparados para la guerra. 


No nos parecio justo el que nos 
tratasen de esa manera. 


The fact that the republican gov¬ 
ernment has several defects does 
not imply that it is the worst 
system. 

The fact that he has said it does 
not prove that it is true. 

His having said it does not 
. prove that it is true. 

That the earth revolves about the 
sun is a demonstrated fact. 

The fact that the Americans were 
well prepared for the war con¬ 
tributed a great deal toward 
the victory. 

'It did not seem fair to us that 
they should treat us in that 
• manner. 

Their treating us in that man¬ 
ner did not seem fair to us. 


As will be noticed, the combination el que in expressions 
of this kind means the fact that, although it is often better 
rendered by giving the English sentence a form entirely 
different from the Spanish. 







42 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


20 


42. Uses of the Definite Article With Proper 


Nouns.— The definite article 

1. Before a proper noun 
adjectival phrase. (Art. 40, 

el virtuoso Washington 
el ambicioso Napoleon 
el siempre generoso Lafayette 
la muy emprendedora Nueva-York 
el omnipotente Dios 
la Europa central 
el Africa del Sur 
la America del Norte 


is used: 

modified by an adjective or 
3.) 

the virtuous Washington 
the ambitious Napoleon 
the ever generous Lafayette 
the very enterprising New York 
the all-powerful God 
Central Europe 
South Africa 
North America 


2. Before the names of rivers, oceans, seas, mountains, 
and volcanoes. 


el Amazonas; el Sena 
el Atlantico; el Pacifico 
el Caspio; el Mediterr&neo 
los Alpes; el Chimborazo 
el Vesuvio; el Etna 


the Amazon; the Seine 
the Atlantic; the Pacific 
the Caspian; the Mediterranean 
the Alps; Chimborazo 
Vesuvius; Etna 


3. Before descriptive or characterizing adjectives forming 
part of the names of sovereigns. 


Carlos el Calvo; Alejandro el | Charles the Bald; Alexander the 
Grande Great 

Escipion el Africano Scipio Africanus 


Exceptions. — (a) Numeral adjectives are excluded from 
this rule. [See Art. 40, 3 (<?).] 

( b) The Spanish name of the Roman emperor Antoninus 
Pius is Antonino Pio, not el Pio; or, with the article, Antonino 
el Piadoso. 


( c ) The adjectives of nationality added to the names of 
Roman generals to characterize their victories are often added 
to their names without the article, after the manner of 
surnames: Escipion Africano is as common as Escipion el 
Africano. 


4. Before geographical names consisting of a substantive 
modified by a descriptive adjective or substantive, or by a 
prepositional phrase. 





§20 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


43 


los Estados Unidos; los Paises 
Bajos 

la Republica de Colombia; la 
Sierra Madre 


the United States; the Netherlands 
(.literally , the Low Countries) 
the Republic of Colombia; the 
Sierra Madre 


5. Before the following geographical names. 


el Afganistan, Afgha?iistan 
la Argentina, the Argentine 
el Beluchistan, Beluchistan 
el Brasil, Brazil 
el Cairo, Cairo 
el Callao, Callao 
el Canada, Canada 
el Ecuador, Ecuador 
la Guaira, La Guayra 
la Guayana, Guiana 

6 . 

la Florida, Florida 
la Carolina, Carolina 
la Virginia, Virginia 


la Habana, Havana 
el Havre, Havre 
la India, India 
el Japon, Japan 
la Meca, Mecca 
el Salvador, Salvador 
el Paraguay, Paraguay 
la Patagonia, Patagonia 
el Peru, Peru 
el Uruguay, Uruguay 


Usually, before the names of the American states. 

el Connecticut, Connecticut 
el Massachusetts, Massachusetts 
el Misisipi, Mississippi 


7. Optionally, before the names of the five parts of the 
world, of large islands, and of all countries not specified 
under 5. 

la Europa, Europe 
el Africa, Africa 
la America, America 
la Australia, Australia 
la Nueva Zelandia, New Zealand 
la Francia, France 
la Suiza, Switzerland 
la Inglaterra, England 

With these names, the article is emphatic, and is particu¬ 
larly adapted to phrases in which it is desired to lay special 
stress on the importance or prominence of the country named. 
Unless the article serves this purpose, it is preferable to 
dispense with it, especially after a preposition. 

jHan osado hacer este insulto a They have dared offer this insult 

la Francia! to France! {Emphatic.) 


la Alemania, Germany 
el Portugal, Portugal 
la Turquia, Turkey 
la China, China 
el Turquestan, Turkestan 
el Egipto, Egypt 
la Argelia, Algiers 







44 SPANISH GRAMMAR §20 


Exceptions. —The names of Spanish-American countries 
(those mentioned in 5 excepted) do not take the article. 


Mejico 

Nicaragua 

Cuba 


Guatemala 

Costa-Rica 

Colombia 


Venezuela 

Bolivia 

Chile 


8. Before the names of the following- Italian poets: 

el Ariosto, Ariosto el Petrarca, Petrarch 

el Dante, Dante el Tasso, Tasso 


9. In familiar and lively style, before the names, and 
more commonly before the surnames, of women. 

la Maria I la Gomez | la Alvarez 


When an actress is referred to by her surname alone, the 
latter is always preceded by the article. 

la Russell, Miss Russell | la Patti, Patti 


10. Before a person’s name, as a mark of contempt, or 


to give the expression a lively 
El Manuel Diaz estuvo aqui hoy. 

El Antonio es muy sospechoso. 


or familiar tone. 

That fellow Manuel Diaz was here 
today. 

That man Anthony is very suspi¬ 
cious. 


11. Occasionally, especially in legal language, before a 
person’s name that has already been mentioned in connection 
with other names. It is then equivalent to diclio, said. 


Presentaronse ante mi Juan Hur¬ 
tado y Antonio Sanchez; el 
Hurtado, natural de la Habana, 
y el Sanchez, de Santiago. 

“En Florencia vivian Anselmo y 
Lotario; el Anselmo era mas 
inclinado a los pasatiempos 
amorosos que el Lotario.” 

12 . 

form part of the title. 

El 11 Don Quijote ” es una grande 
obra. 

iHa leido usted la “Maria" de 
Jorge Isaacs? 


Joh'n Hurtado and Anthony San¬ 
chez appeared before me; said 
Hurtado, a native of Havana, 
and said Sanchez, of Santiago. 

‘‘In Florence there lived Anselm 
and Lothair; Anselm was more 
inclined to amorous pastimes 
than Lothair.” 


Before the title of a book, even if the article does not 

‘‘Don Quixote” is a great work. 

Have you read George Isaacs’ 
‘‘Maria”? 








§20 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


45 


13. Before a proper noun used as a common noun to 
denote certain characteristic qualities. 


Daniel Webster fue el Demdstenes 
de America. 

Paris ha dejado de ser la Atenas 
de Europa. 


Daniel Webster was the Demos¬ 
thenes of America. 

Paris has ceased to be the Athens 
of Europe. 


43. Tlie Substantivized Definite Article. — The arti¬ 
cle is used substantively in Spanish, either with reference to 
a substantive previously mentioned in the sentence, in which 
case that substantive is understood after it (Art. 6 , 3), or 
independently, in which case it refers to persons, one of the 
substantives hombre, man; mujer, woman; persona, per¬ 
son; etc., being understood after it. It is then rendered by 
he , those, etc. (Compare Art. 32.) 


Los que pretenden saberlo todo, 
generalmente no saben nada. 

El que mucho habla mucho yerra. 

Los de que mas tenemos que que- 
jarnos son los oficiales del se- 
gundo regimiento. 

Los encargados de administrar 
justicia deben conocer las leyes. 


Those who pretend to know every¬ 
thing, generally know nothing. 

He who talks much errs a great 
deal. 

Those of whom we have to com¬ 
plain the most are the officers of 
the second regiment. 

Those intrusted with the adminis¬ 
tration of justice must know the 
laws. 


As appears from the first two examples, the substantivized 
article followed by que is equivalent to quien (Part 4, The 
Relative Quien). In expressions like the following, also, el 
que is a synonym of qzden: 


El fue el que (or, quien) me lo dijo. I It was he who told it to me. 

Le pregunte al que ( or , A quien) I asked the man that was at the 
estaba en la oficiua. I office. 


44. As the substantivized demonstrative ese takes the 
place of the neuter eso , in the somewhat anomalous construc¬ 
tions pointed out in Art. 34, so, too, the substantivized 
article may take the place of the neuter lo. 


Lo que parecia hombre, resulto 


What looked like a man, proved 
to be an ape. 


ser un mono. 





46 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


20 


Here lo means la cosa, the thing, or el objeto, the object, 
and is logically the proper word to employ. Usage, how¬ 
ever, sanctions the employment of el instead: El que parecia 
hombre resulto ser un mono. The literal rendering of this 
sentence is, The ape that looked like a man proved to be an ape. 
In the following example, the anomaly is still greater. 

El que parecia soldado, era una I What {or, The person that) looked 
pastora. | like a soldier, was a shepherdess. 

The literal rendering of this sentence is, He who looked 
like a soldier, was a shepherdess. 

Although in all cases of this kind the use of the substan¬ 
tivized article is correct, being sanctioned by some of the 
best writers, it is preferable to use in its place the neuter lo, 
which is grammatically as proper, and logically more so. 


THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE 

45. Forms of the Indefinite Article.— The forms of 
the indefinite article are as follows: 


masculine singular, un feminine singular, una 

masculine plural, unos feminine plural, unas 


It has been already explained that the plural forms unos, 
unas, are rendered by some. They are also employed before 
numbers in the sense of about, more or less. 


La construccion de ese puente 
costard unos veinte 6 treinta mil 
pesos. 


The construction of that bridge 
will cost about (or, some) twenty 
or thirty thousand dollars. 


The form un is never used substantively, uno being used 
instead (Art. 6, 3): un rico means a rich man, not a rich one. 

Un ciego tenia dos perros: uno I A blind man had two dogs—a 
bianco y uno negro. | white one and a black one. 


Here un is the adjective form of the article, modifying the 
substantivized adjective ciego; while uno is the substantivized 
form, modified by the adjectives bianco and negro. 




§20 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


47 


46. Uses of the Indefinite Article.—The indefinite 
article is used: 

1. Before a common noun, or a substantive phrase, to 
indicate that one, but not any particular one, of the things 
belonging to the class of which the noun or phrase is the 
name is referred to. 


Hoy llego un vapor de Buenos- 
Aires. 

El hombre es un animal. 

Pongale un sello de a dos centavos 
a esta carta. 

Aqui vive una senora francesa . 


A steamer from Buenos Ayres 
arrived today. 

Man is an animal. 

Put a two-cent stamp on that 
letter. 

Here lives a French lady. 


In the third example, the substantive sello is modified by 
a restrictive phrase, which specifies the kind of sello referred 
to; the article un , however, does not refer to this substantive, 
but to the phrase sello de a dos centavos , considered as the 
name of a whole class. A similar remark applies to the 
fourth example, in which una modifies the phrase name 
senora francesa. 

Explanations and Exceptions.— {a) A predicate com¬ 
mon noun takes the indefinite article when that noun serves 
as a partial definition of the subject of the sentence, as in 
the second example given above; or as a descriptive defini¬ 
tion, such as that of an animal or any other material object. 


El oro es un metal de color 
amarillo, cuyo peso especifico 
es 19,5 (diez y nueve y cinco 
decimos), indiferente a la accion 
del acido nltrico, etc. 


Gold is a metal of yellow color, 
having a specific gravity of 19.5, 
indifferent to the action of nitric 
acid, etc. 


In definitions of abstract conceptions or generalizations, 
which are of a purely logical character, the definite article is 
employed in place of the indefinite. 

La geometria es la ciencia de la I Geometry is the science of exten- 
extension. | sion. 


(b) When a predicate noun is modified by an adjective or 
adjectival phrase that, although grammatically referring to 




48 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


20 


that noun, is really intended as a characterization of the 
subject, the predicate noun is preceded by the indefinite 


article. 

La geologia es una ciencia vmy 
interesante. 

Napoleon fue un hombre de 
mucho genio. 

La gramatica es un estudio que 
a pocos les gust a. 


Geology is a very interesting 
science. 

Napoleon was a man of great 
genius. 

Grammar is a study that few like. 


(r) The indefinite article is likewise used before a predi¬ 
cate noun preceded by an unmodified adjective. 


Washington fue un grande hom- 
bre. 

Esta estatua es una grande obra 
de arte. 

Lincoln era un pobre lenador. 

La mineria es un mat negocio. 


Washington was a great man. 

This statue is a great work of 
art. 

Lincoln was a poor wood cutter. 
Mining is a bad business. 


(d) Except in the cases just mentioned, a predicate noun 
takes neither article. This rule constitutes a very important 
difference between English and Spanish, and should receive 
much attention from the student. 


Mi liermano es general. 

^Es usted comerciante comisio- 
nista ? 

Esta ninita es huerfana. 

Miguel es irlandes de nacimiento, 
pero ciudadano americano por 
naturalizacion. Hasta hacepoco 
era criado en un restaurante; 
ahora es agente de policta. 

Ese color amarillento de los ojos 
es mat sintoma. 

La huelga que los maquinistas 
han declarado es cuestion muy 
seria. 


My brother is a general. 

Are you a commission merchant? 

This little girl is an orphan. 

Michael is an Irishman by birth, 
but an American citizen by 
naturalization. Until lately he 
was a waiter in a restaurant; 
now he is a policeman. 

That yellowish color of the eyes is 
a bad symptom. 

The strike that the machinists 
have declared is a very serious 
question. 


In connection with this subject, the student’s attention is 
called to the fact that nationality is indicated in Spanish by 
adjectives, not by substantives, as appears from the literal 
translation of the following sentence: .crfe 





§20 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


49 


Soy mejicano , pero mi madre es I am Mexican, but my mother is 
canadense. \ Canadian. 

The political party, religious denomination, or the faction 
or side to which a person belongs is likewise indicated by an 
adjective. 

I Es usted catolico 6 protestante ? 

Mi padre es republicano , pero yo 
soy democrat a. 

This difference is better illustrated by the following 
examples, in which the adjectives are modified by adverbs: 


Are you a Catholic or a Protes¬ 
tant? 

My father is a republican, but I 
am a democrat. 


Parece que usted es muy catb- 
lico. — No, senor; no tail cato¬ 
lico como usted cree. 

El profesor Huxley era mas da- 
rwinista que el mismo Darwin. 

Blanc era demasiado socialista. 


It seems that you are a great 
Catholic.— No, sir; not so much 
of a Catholic as you think. 
Professor Huxley was more Dar¬ 
winian than Darwin himself. 
Blanc was too much of a socialist. 


2. Emphatically, before a predicate adjective referring to 
a substantive denoting a person. The adjective is then sub¬ 
stantivized, and is used for the purpose of presenting the 
quality or property it expresses as being a characteristic or 
prominent feature of the subject, always with the implication 
of contempt, admiration, disgust, pity, etc., according to the 
meaning of the adjective. This use of the article applies 
both to the singular and to the plural form. 


Juan es un estupido. 

Esa mujer es una ivfeliz. 

El general Botha es nil valiente. 

Los que defienden esa teoria son 
imos ignorantes. 


John is a stupid fellow. 

That woman is a wretched crea¬ 
ture. 

General Botha is a hero ( more 
literally , a brave man). 

Those who defend that theory are 
great ignoramuses. 


3. Emphatically, before a proper noun, to lay stress on 
the importance or prominence of the thing denoted by the 
noun. In this form of construction, the article is often pre¬ 
ceded by todo, all, which serves no other purpose than that 
of adding emj . . 'he phrase. 





50 SPANISH GRAMMAR §20 


Todo un Napoleon fue incapaz 
de veneer A la Inglaterra. 

Si los norte-americanos tienen un 
Misisipi, nosotros tenemos un 
Amazonas. 


Even a Napoleon was unable to 
vanquish England. 

If the North Americans have a 
Mississippi, we have an Ama¬ 
zon. 


4. Before the name of a person —usually in contempt —to 
indicate that the person is unknown. 

Acabo de leer un articulo por un I have just read an article by a 
Jose Castillo. <;Quien es ese? Jose Castillo. Who is that? 

47. Cases in Which the Indefinite Article Should 
Not Be Used. — In addition to those already mentioned, the 
following are important cases in which the indefinite article 
should not be employed in Spanish: 


1. Before a substantive or substantive phrase in appo¬ 
sition with a preceding substantive, but not serving to restrict 
or specify the meaning of the latter. 


Newton, ilustre matematico, fue 
el descubridor de la ley de 
gravitacion. 

El aluminio, metal muy ligero y 
muy durable, seria mejor para 
ese objeto. 


Newton, an illustrious mathema¬ 
tician, was the discoverer of the 
law of gravitation. 

Aluminum, a very light and very 
durable metal, would be better 
for that purpose. 


If a substantive explains the meaning of another with 
which it is in apposition, and the explained substantive 
represents a thing known to the listener or reader, the 
explanatory substantive should be preceded by the definite 
article. 


Esto sucedio en Mejico, la capital 
del pais del mismo nombre. 

Mr. Gladstone, el grande orador 
ingles , pronuncio ayer un mag- 
nifico discurso. 


This happened in Mexico, the 
capital of the country of the 
same name. 

Mr. Gladstone, the great English 
orator, delivered a magnificent 
address yesterday. 


2. Before the name of a unit of measure, if the latter is 
followed by one of the partitive numerals ml tad, half, or 
cuarto, quarter. The article is likewise omitted before these 






20 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


51 


partitives, whenever they are preceded by the conjunction y, 
and. In these cases, the adjective a used in English is rather 
a numeral than an article. 


Deme libra y media de azucar. 

Son las dos y aiarto. 

Llegamos a las tres y media. 

Esta camisa me costo dos pesos y 
medio. 


Give me a pound and a half of 
sugar. 

It is a quarter past two. 

We arrived at half past three. 
This shirt cost me two dollars and 
a half. 


3. Before a noun preceded by one of the words cierto, 
certain; como, as; otro, other; tal, semajante, such. 


Esto me lo dijo cierta persona. 
Yo he venido aqui como ciuda- 
dano , no como presidente. 
Ayer compre otro caballo. 

Yo no he dicho tal cosa. 

Jamas habiamos oido seme- 
jante ruido. 


A certain person told me this. 

I have come here as a citizen, not 
as president. 

I bought another horse yesterday. 
I have not said such a thing. 

We had never heard such a noise. 


4. In comparisons, before a substantive modified by an 
adjective preceded by the adverb tan, so. If, however, the 
substantive is the accusative of a verb, the article may be 
used. Notice the difference between the Spanish and the 
English construction. 

No hay en el mundo lugar tan 
bello como este. 

<;Ha visto usted alguna vez 
estatua tan perfecta? 

Inglaterra no es nacio7i tan 
poderosa como generalmente 
se cree. 

Although this rule is not absolute, it should be applied 
in all cases of doubt. In the last example, the use of the 
article would not be improper, but it would be superfluous. 

5. Before a substantive preceded by the exclamatory 
adjective que, what. 


There is not in the world so 
beautiful a spot as this. 

Have you ever seen so perfect a 
statue. 

England is not so powerful a 
nation as is generally believed. 


iQue hombre! jque jefe! 


What a man! what a leader! 





52 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


20 


6. After the verbs teiier, to have, and estar, to be, 
followed by the name of a disease or ailment, unless that 
name is modified by a restrictive adjective or adjectival 
phrase. 


Tengo {or, Estoy con) dolor de 
cabeza. 

Tengo {or, Estoy con) catarro. 

Mi hermano tiene {or, estacon) un 
dolor de cabeza muy fuerte. 


I have a headache. 

I have a cold. 

My brother has a very severe 
headache. 


7. After tener, in expressions like the following, which 
are very similar in form to those just mentioned: 


Tiene buen corazon. 

Tengo mala memoria. 

Tenemos gusto por eso. 

Tengo deseo de comer. 

Don Antonio tiene muy buen 
apetito. 


He has a good heart. 

I have a bad memory. 

We have a taste for that. 

I have a desire to eat. 

Mr. Anthony has a very good 
appetite. 


8. Before the titles of books and articles. 


“Tratado elemental de termodi- I “An Elementary Treatise on 
namica.” Thermodynamics.” 

“Nueva teoria de la production.” | “A New Theory of Production.” 

9. Before a noun preceded by con, with, or sin, with¬ 
out, in adverbial phrases in which naturally or usually only 
one thing of the class named by the noun is referred to. 


Estudio sin maestro; con maes¬ 
tro. 

Juan salio sin sombrero; con som¬ 
brero. 


I study without, a teacher; with a 
teacher. 

John went out without any hat on; 
with his hat on. 


Exception. — If the noun is modified by a restrictive 
adjective or adjectival phrase, the article should be used. 


Estudio sin un maestro qtieentien- 
da el idioma. 

Juan salio con un sombrero pres- 
tado. 


I study without a teacher who 
understands the language. 

John went out with a borrowed 
hat on. 






20 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


53 


UNCLASSIFIED FORMS OF EXPRESSION 
CONTAINING ARTICLES 

48. There are a great many expressions in which one 
of the articles is used in one language and not in the other, 
and that do not come under any of the foregoing rules. It 
would be difficult to give them all, and still more difficult to 
classify them in a satisfactory and useful manner. The 
following forms are some of the most commonly met with: 


Voy k la iglesia, al colegio, a la 
escuela. 

Estoy en el colegio, en la escuela. 

El presidente acaba de salir de pa- 
lacio. 

Tome asiento. 

El criminal temblo en presencia 
del cadalso. 

Filadelfia queda a orillas del De¬ 
laware. 

Se fue sin hablar palabra. 

Salio k ver mundo y a buscar 
for tuna. 

El hombre tiene derecho a la 
libertad. 

Soy de opinion que el pueblo pro- 
testara contra esa ley. 


I am going (am on my way) to 
church , to college , to school. 

I go to (attend) college , to school. 

The president has just gone out 
of the palace. 

Take a seat. 

The criminal trembled in the pres¬ 
ence of the scaffold. 

Philadelphia lies on the banks of 
the Delaware. 

He left without saying a word. 

He went out to see the world and 
seek his fortune. 

Man has a right to liberty. 

1 am of the opinion that the people 
will protest against that law. 








SPANISH GRAMMAR 

(PART 6) 


THE ADJECTIVE-(continued) 


POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES 


PERSONAL POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES 

1. Definitions. —Possessive adjectives have already 
been defined as those that restrict the meaning of nouns by 
indicating that the things denoted by the nouns belong or 
appertain to other things (people included). In dealing with 
adjectives of this class, the thing to which another belongs 
or appertains is referred to as the possessor. 

Possessive adjectives are of two kinds, namely: 

Personal possessive adjectives, which by their form 
indicate the grammatical person of the possessor, and can, 
therefore, be of the first, the second, or the third person. 

Relative possessive adjectives, which combine the 
general characteristics of possessives with those of relatives. 

2. Personal Possessive Adjectives Used Before the 
Modified Substantives.—These are: 

First Person Second Person 

mi, my [yo] tu, thy [tu] 

nuestro, our [nosotros] vuestro, your [vosotros] 

Third Person 

su, his, her , one's (also, your) [el, ella, uno (also, usted)] 
su, their (also, your) [ellos, ellas (also, ustedes)] 

The words in brackets are the pronouns by which the 
possessors are represented. These possessives follow the 

For notice of copyright , see page immediately following the title page 

g 21 





2 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


21 


general rules governing the inflection of adjectives for 
number and gender: mi, tu, su may modify either masculine 
or feminine singular substantives; they have the plural forms 
mis , tus, sus, which apply to either gender. Nuestro and 
vuestro have the masculine plural forms nuestros, vuestros , and 
the feminine forms nuestra, nuestras; vuestra, vuestras. 


mi libro; tu casa 
mis libros; tus casas 
nuestro establecimiento 
nuestras calamidades 


| my book; thy house 
my books; thy houses 
our establishment 
our calamities 


3. Forms Used After the Modified Substantives. 
A possessive adjective may follow, instead of preceding, the 
substantive it modifies. In such a case, that substantive 
should be preceded by the definite article, and the forms 
mi , tu , su, which are called apocopated forms, should be 
replaced by mio , tuyo, suyo, respectively. 

el lapiz mio; las plumas tuyas | my pencil; thy pens 

la casa suya; los amigos nuestros [ his, her, their, your, house; our 

friends 


In direct address, however, the possessive follows the 
modified substantive without the latter being preceded by 
the definite article. The possessive is then rather a mark 
of affection or respect than a sign of possession, and can 
usually be rendered by the corresponding English possessive 
adjective followed by dear. 

hijo mio; madre mia | my dear son; my dear mother 

muy senora nuestra our very dear madam 

muy senores mios my very dear sirs 

The last two expressions are common forms employed at 
the beginning of a letter, and would be customarily rendered 
by dear madam, dear sirs, respectively. 

If the adjective querido, dear, which is implied in the pos¬ 
sessive placed after a noun denoting a person, is expressed 
before the noun, the possessive should usually precede the 
substantive phrase thus obtained. This form of expression, 
however, is limited to familiar style. 




§21 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


3 


mi querido hijo I my dear son 

mi muy querida esposa | my very dear wife 

Such forms as querido hijo mio, amada esposa mia, in which 
an adjective of endearment occurs in combination with a 
possessive following the noun it modifies, are more emphatic 
than the forms hijo mio or mi querido hijo, esposa mia or mi 
amada esposa, and may be rendered by means of superlative 
English adjectives: my dearest son, my most beloved (or, dar¬ 
ling) wife. 

4. In a few adverbial prepositional phrases, the possess¬ 
ive follows its substantive, without the latter being pre¬ 
ceded by the definite article. Among them are: 

& fe mia, upon my word por causa vuestra, on your account 

a peticion suya, on his petition , a pesar nuestro, in spite of us 

at his request 


Perdimos todo ese <Svao.ro por culpa | 
vuestra. 


Se rieron mucho d costa mia. 


We lost all that money through 
your fault {or, You are to blame 
for our having lost all that 
money). 

They laughed a great deal at my 
expense. 


The phrase a pesar mio means in spite of me, while d mi 
pesar means to my regret, against my feelings. 

Lo hice muy a mi pesar. \ I did it much against my feelings 

I (or, against my wishes). 


5. A possessive, when combined with the definite article, 
always refers to a special and determinate thing. In some 
cases, the article is omitted, thus giving to the possessive 
an indeterminate sense, usually expressed in English by the 
indefinite article, or, in negative and in interrogative sen¬ 
tences, by the adjectives no and any, respectively. 


Ayer recibl su carta (or, la carta 
suya). 

Ayer recibl carta suya. 

iNo recibid mi carta? 
iNo recibio carta mia? 


I received his letter yesterday. 

iTeceived a letter from him yes¬ 
terday. 

Did you not receive my letter? . 
Did you not receive any letter 
from me? 





4 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§21 


6. As predicate adjectives, mio, tuyo, suyo, nuestro, and 
vuestro are rendered by mine; thine; his, hers, theirs; ours, and 
yours, respectively. The same rule applies when these 
possessives are substantivized, or when they follow the 
substantivized definite article. In the latter case, the com¬ 
bination formed by the article and the modifying possessive 
is rendered by the English possessive alone. 


Este caballo es mio. 

La tienda de que ustedes hablan 
es nuestra. 

^De quien es esa maleta? — Mia. 
(jEs esta la casa de tu amo, 6 la 
tuya? 


This horse is mine. 

The store of which you speak is 
ours. 

Whose is that satchel? —Mine. 

Is this thy master’s house, or 
thine? 


The student should be careful to distinguish between the 
two forms, Este libro es mio, and Este libro es el mio, both of 
which are rendered, This book is mine. In the first, the 
speaker simply makes the statement that the book belongs 
to him, without referring to any other books. The literal 
rendering of the second is, This book is the one mine: here the 
speaker wishes to refer, among several books, to a particular 
one —the one that belongs to him. This distinction may 
perhaps be made plainer by comparing the two expressions 
just considered with these other two, in which the adjective 
is not a possessive: 


Estos sobretodos son importados. 
Estos sobretodos son los impor¬ 
tados. 

7. A possessive adjective 
should follow, never precede, 


I These overcoats are imported. 

I These overcoats are the imported 
ones. 

modifying a neuter substantive 
that substantive. 


Creo que aqui hay algo tuyo. 
Tu sabes que lo mio es tuyo. 


I think there is something of 
yours here. 

Thou knowest that what is mine 
is thine ( Literally, that the 
things mine are thine). 


8. When a demonstrative adjective precedes a substan¬ 
tive modified by a possessive, the latter may be placed 
either after the substantive or before the demonstrative. 




§21 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


5 


The latter order is better adapted to lively or humorous 
composition. 

ese tu amigo; ese amigo tuyo | that friend of thine 


9. The use of the possessive adjective with the indefinite 
article is illustrated by the two following examples: 


iQuien es Pedro Diaz? —Es un 
amigo mio. 

iConoce usted a Pedro Diaz? —Si, 
senor; el es amigo mio. 


Who is Peter Diaz? —He is a friend 
of mine. 

Do you know Peter Diaz? —Yes, 
sir; he is a friend of mine. 


In the first example, the speaker refers to a person not 
known to the listener, and explains who he is by stating that 
he is one of his friends. In the second example, the person 
referred to by the speaker is supposed to be known to the 
listener, and the speaker simply wishes to state the circum¬ 
stance that that person is one of his friends. 

When either the definite or the indefinite article is used 
with a possessive adjective, the latter is seldom placed 
before the substantive it modifies. The reverse order is 
only permissible in familiar style, in poetry, and in a few 
devotional phrases. When the definite article is employed, 
the combination formed by it and the accompanying possess¬ 
ive is rendered by the corresponding English possessive 
placed before the modified substantive. 


' Vino con un su amigo. 

“Vosotros cantareis la mi muerte 
cada dia.” 

“Santificado sea el tu nombre; 
venga k nos el tu reino.” 


He came with a friend of his. 

“Ye will sing my death every 
day.’’ 

“Hallowed be thy name; thy 
kingdom come (to us).” 


10. Ambiguity of tbe Possessives Suyo and Su. 
As suyo is the possessive adjective of the third person, both 
singular and plural, and also of the second person, when the 
latter is represented by usted' or ustedes, some ambiguity may 
arise from its employment. Thus, la casa suya may mean 
either bis house , lier house , their house , or your house. 
When the context or the circumstances are not sufficient to 
make the sense clear, the ambiguity is removed byreplacing 




6 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


21 


the possessive with a phrase formed by de with the preposi¬ 
tional case of the appropriate personal pronoun. In the 
following examples, the replaced possessive is enclosed in 
brackets: 


Esta Have es de usted [ suya\. 

<;Es este paraguas el de usted 
[suyo] , 6 el de ella [suyo] ? 

Los senores Gomez me han dicho 
que, si no conseguimos caballos 
hoy, tendran mueho gusto en 
prestarnos los de el/os [suyos]. 


This key is yours. 

Is this umbrella yours, or hers? 

The Messrs. Gomez have told me 
that, if we cannot get horses 
today, they will be much pleased 
to lend us theirs. 


11. The same substitution applies to the apocopated 
form S7(, after replacing this form with the full form suyo 
combined with the article. Thus, su casa, which is equiva¬ 
lent to la casa suya, may be replaced by la casa de usted, 
la casa de el, etc., according to circumstances. 


Su padre envio la carta de usted 
[5« carta\ al vapor esta manana. 
La tienda de ellos [su tienda ] no 
esta tan convenientemente si- 
tuada como la de ustedes [suya ]. 


Your father sent your letter to 
the steamer this morning. 

Their store is not so conveniently 
located as yours. 


12. Referring to a person’s relatives, the definite article 
often takes by itself the place of the possessive adjective of 
the third person, no prepositional phrase being then added. 


El senor Fajardo llego ayer de 
Europa con la senora y los hijos. 

Don Antonio Andrade acaba de 
recibir un cablegrama en que le 
comunican la muerte del hijo. 

Cuando una mujer no quiere al 
marido, lo mejor que puede 
hacer es separarse de el. 


Mr. Fajardo arrived yesterday 
from Europe with his wife and 
children. 

Mr. Anthony Andrade has just 
received a cablegram in which 
they communicate to him the 
death of his son. 

When a woman does not love her 
husband, the best thing she can 
do is to separate herself from 
him. 


13. Instead of the definite article, the possessives su, 
suyo, are sometimes employed in combination with a prepo¬ 
sitional phrase. 





§21 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


7 


Sus hermanas de usted desean 
verlo. 

Su madre nos suplico que le en- 
vidsemos este sombrero a su 
casa de ella. 

De los dos metodos, el suyo de 
ustedes me parece mucho mejor. 


Your sisters wish to see you. 

Your mother requested us to send 
this hat to her house. 

Of the two methods, yours seems 
to me much better. 


This form of construction, although not uncommon, is 
considered very inelegant, and should be avoided as much as 
possible, especially when the object of the preposition de is 
other than usted or ustedes. 


14. Parts of the Body, Wearing Apparel, Etc. 
In treating of the dative case (Part 4) and of the articles 
(Part 5), it was explained that the definite article often 
takes the place of a possessive adjective before a substan¬ 
tive denoting a part of the body, a mental faculty, a piece 
of wearing apparel, and, in general, anything that naturally 
belongs to a person as part of either his physical or his 
mental constitution, or that he usually wears or carries 
with him. 


Pdngase este termometro debajo 
de la lengua. 

Galileo perdio la vista. 

No puedo concentrar la atencion 
en ese asunto. 

El soldado arrojo el rifle al suelo, 
y, tomando la bay one ta, salto 
sobre su adversario. 


Place this thermometer under your 
tongue. 

Galileo lost his sight. 

I cannot concentrate my attention 
on that subject. 

The soldier threw his rifle on the 
ground, and, taking his bayonet, 
sprang on his adversary. 


In the last example, the definite article is employed with 
rifle and bayoneta, because these are things that a soldier 
usually carries with him, and with which he is naturally 
associated. Under different circumstances, the indefinite 
article should be used instead of the definite. 

El ladrdn entro en mi aposento I The burglar came into my apart- 
con un punal en la mano. | ment with a dagger in his hand. 


The general rule may be stated that, when a part of the 
body, a faculty, etc. is referred to, and the possessor is 
represented in the same sentence by either the subject of 




8 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


21 


the verb or by a dative case (see Part 4), the definite article 
should be employed; otherwise, the possessive adjective, as 


in English. 

Su cuerpo era robusto, casi atle- 
tico; su rostro, bello y delicado, 
casi como el de una mujer. 

Una lagrima rodo por mi mejilla 
y cayo sobre su frente. 


His body was robust, almost ath¬ 
letic; his face, beautiful and 
delicate, almost like that of a 
woman. 

A tear rolled down my cheek and 
fell upon her forehead. 


15. Idiomatic Uses of tlie Possessive Adjectives. 
The plural masculine form of a possessive adjective preceded 
by the definite article serves to denote a person’s relatives, 
friends, constituents, or other people with whom he is natu¬ 
rally or temporarily connected or associated. The persons 
referred to are always indicated by the circumstances. 


Nos alegramos de que usted y los 
suyos esten bien de salud. 

El senador Arosemena y yo esta- 
mos seguros de que los nuestros 
aprobaran nuestra conducta. 


We are glad that you and yours 
are in good health. 

Senator Arosemena and I are sure 
that our constituents will ap¬ 
prove our conduct. 


16. In familiar style and light literature, su is occasionally 
employed in an indefinite sense to indicate vaguely the 
existence or occurrence of something without specifying 
the particulars. It is then rendered by means of such 
expressions as not a few , ?iot without , some kind of , etc., 
according to circumstances. This is one of those construc¬ 
tions about the translation of which no definite rules can 
be given, and whose character is better understood from 
examples than from explanations. 


Este plan no carece de sus des- 
ventajas. 

El y su socio como que tuvieron 
su molestia. 

No le faltan 4 don Eugenio sus 
amigos. 

Siempre ha habido aqui sus mi- 
llonarios. 


This plan is not without {or, is 
not lacking in) some disadvan¬ 
tages. 

It seems that he and his partner 
had some kind of trouble. 

Mr. Eugene is not without a few 
friends. 

There have always been one or 
two (that is, a few) millionaires 
here. 





21 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


9 


THE POSSESSIVE RELATIVE CUYO 

17. This relative applies to both animate and inanimate 
things, and is equivalent to either de que , del cual , de quien, 
or de lo cual , according to the character of its antecedent. 
Like other adjectives, it agrees in number and gender with 
the substantive it modifies. It corresponds to the possessive 
adjective zvhose and to the possessive phrase of which. 


No conozco a la senora cnyo re- 
trato me ha ensenado listed. 

El general Galindo, ciiyas hijas 
llegaron en el vapor Santander, 
saldra de Buenos-Aires con el 
resto de su familia a principios 
del mes entrante. 

No recuerdo el nombre del arbol 
de cuya corteza se extrae esta 
sustancia. 

A los americanos no les gusta 
aprender sino aquello cuya utili- 
dad practica es manifiesta. 


I do not know the lady whose 
picture you have shown me. 

General Galindo, whose daughters 
arrived on the steamer Santan¬ 
der, will leave Buenos Ayres 
with the rest of his family in 
the early part of next month. 

I do not remember the name of 
the tree from the bark of which 
this substance is extracted. 

Americans like to learn only that 
(or, those things) the practical 
usefulness of which is manifest. 


18 . Occasionally, cuyo is used as a predicate adjective 
with the verb ser, in which case it is rendered by the phrase 
to whom combined with the verb to belong. 


“el caballero cuya era la espada’’ 


“the gentleman to whom the 
sword belonged’’ 


19 . With reference to people, cuyo may include its ante¬ 
cedent, being then equivalent to la persona de quien , el hombre 
de quien , la mujer de quien , etc. The antecedent is always 
indicated by the circumstances. This use of cuyo is not 
common at the present time. 


“Entregaron la ciudad a cuya 
era.’’ 

“ Cuyo soy me mando 
no dijese que era suyo.” 


“They delivered the city to those 
to whom it belonged.’’ 

‘ ‘ She to whom I belong ordered me 
Not to tell I was hers.’’ 


20 . It was stated in Part 5 that cuyo often performs the 
functions of a demonstrative adjective, being then equivalent 
to este or ese. Although this application of cuyo is very strongly 





10 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


21 


condemned by grammarians, it is of frequent occurrence, 
even among some of the best writers. The following exam¬ 
ples may serve as illustrations: 


Careciamos de viveres y de muni- 
ciones, por cuyo motivo ( better, 
por ese motivo; or , motivo por 
el cual ) tuvimos que entre- 
garnos. 

Es necesario que los empleados 
conozcan sus deberes, para cuyo 
fin ( better , para este fin; or, fin 
para el cual) he escrito este 
reglamento. 

El congreso ha resuelto no otor- 
gar el privilegio; cuya decision 
(i better , decision que; or, esta 
decision) ha sido aprobada por 
el presideute. 


We lacked provisions and ammu¬ 
nition, for which reason ( better , 
and for that reason) we had to 
surrender. 

It is necessary that the employes 
should know their duties, and 
to this end I have written these 
regulations. 

Congress has decided not to grant 
the privilege; a decision that 
(or, which decision) has been 
approved by the president. 


21. .In those forms of construction in which reference is 
made to a part of the body, wearing apparel, etc., and pos¬ 
session is indicated by a dative case or a dative prepositional 
phrase, the relative- cuyo is replaced by the dative phrase 
d qiiien. 


El joven d quien el barbero le 
estaba cortando el pelo es mi 
hermano. 

Un hombre d quien el corazon le 
late tan aprisa no puede estar 
en buena salud. 


The young man whose hair the 
barber was cutting is my 
brother. 

A man whose heart beats so fast 
cannot be in good health. 


INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVES 


CUAL AXD QUE 

22. QuS is used, without change of form, for both genders 
and numbers; cual has the plural cuales. As an adjective 
immediately preceding the substantive it modifies, cual has a 
more definite sense than que; it indicates that the thing or 
things about which a question is asked belong to a particular 






§21 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


11 


group or form part of a special number of things known both 
to the listener and to the speaker, either from their having 
been mentioned or from some other circumstances. 


4Cual Have tiene usted en la 
raano, la mla 6 la suya? 

Aqui tiene usted varias camisas 
de color: 4cual color le gusta a 
usted mas? 

4Cudles condiciones le parecen a 
usted mas aceptables, las del 
gobierno 6 las mias? 


Which key have you in your 
hand, mine or yours? 

Here you have several colored 
shirts: which color do you like 
best? 

Which terms seem to you more 
acceptable, the government’s or 
mine? 


Que , on the contrary, has reference to things having no 
necessary or implied connection with others of the same kind; 
that is, it applies when the thing answering the question may 
be any one of those denoted by the noun that yzz/modifies. In 
the first of the examples given above, the number of objects 
denoted by the noun Have that can answer the question is 
restricted to two; in the second, only one of the colors shown 
to the pqrson addressed will answer the question. In the 
following sentences, there are no such restrictions; the 
answer to the first question may be any Have; the answer to 
the second, any color: 


4Que Have tiene usted en la 
mano? 

Deseo una camisa de color. —4Que 
color le gusta a usted mas? 


What key have you in your hand? 

I want a colored shirt. —What 
color do you like best? 


23. Although qiie can be a neuter interrogative pronoun, 
as explained in Part 4, it cannot be a substantivized adjec¬ 
tive. Cudl, on the contrary, is often used in this capacity. 


4Cual (that is, 4Cual nombre ) es 
su nombre? 

iVe usted aquel edificio?— 4C11&I? 
(that is, 4Cudl edificio?) 

4Cuales (that is, Judies obras) 
son las mejores obras de la li- 
teratura espanola? 

Hay sopa de tomates y de fideos. 
4Cual (that is, 4Cual sopa) pre- 
fiere usted? 


What is your name? 

Do you see yonder building? — 
Which? 

Which are the best works of Span¬ 
ish literature? 

There is tomato and vermicelli 
soup. Which do you prefer? 





12 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§21 


No se sabe cual (that is, cual 
hornbre) de los dos disparo pri- 
mero. [Indirect question .] 

24. Cudl may be a neuter 
the following example: 

4 Cudl es peor, morir de hambre, 

6 mendigar para vivir? 


It is not known which of the two 
(men) fired first. 

interrogative pronoun, as in 

Which is worse, to die of hunger, 
or to beg in order to live? 


CUANTO, CUANTOS 

25. Cudnto, -a , relates to quantity, and means hozv much; 
while cudntos,-as, relates to number, and means how many. 
Like other adjectives, both of these can be substantivized. 


gCudnto oro produce su mina men- 
sualmente? 

No recuerdo cudnta lana expor- 
t&mos el mes pasado. 

4Cu&ntos bancos de ahorros hay 
en esta ciudad? 

Tenga usted la bondad de averi- 
guar cuantas docenas de camisas 
hemos embarcado esta semana. 


How much gold does your mine 
yield monthly? 

I do not remember how much 
wool we exported last month. 

How many savings banks are 
there in this city? 

Please find out how many dozens 
of shirts we have shipped this 
week. 


26. Cudnto may be a neuter, meaning how much. 


4Cudnio perdio usted en ese 
negocio? 

4Cuanto vale esto? 


How much did you lose in that 
business? 

How much is this worth? 


CUYO 


27. Formerly, cuyo was 
rogative adjective equivalent 

4Cuyo criado eres tu? 

4Cuyo es este palacio? 

4Cuyo ejercito obtuvo la victoria? 


extensively used as an inter- 
to the English whose. 

Whose servant art thou? 

Whose palace is this? 

Whose army obtained the victory? 


At present, however, de quien generally takes the place of 
cuyo. When this phrase immediately modifies a substantive, 
it follows thfit substantive. 

Criado de quien eres tu? — 4„De quien es este palacio? 

<|E 1 ejercito de quien (better, 4Cual ejercito) obtuvo la victoria? 









§21 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


13 


NUMERALS 


CARDINAL NUMERALS 


28. Integral Numbers.— The following table shows 
how integral numbers are named in Spanish: 


cero, 0 
uno, 1 
dos, 2 
tres, 3 
cuatro, 4 
cinco, 5 
seis, 6 
siete, 7 
ocho, 8 
nueve, 9 
diez, 10 
once, 11 
doce, 12 
trece, 13 
catorce, 14 
quince, 15 
diez y seis, 
dieciseis, 
diezy siete, j ^ 
diecisiete, j 
diez y ocho, 1 ^ 
dieciocho, J 
diez y nueve, 1 ^ 
diecinueve, J 
veinte, 20 
veintiuno, 21 
veintidos, 22 
veintitres, 23 
veinticuatro, 24 
veinticinco, 25 
veintiseis, 26 
veintisiete, 27 
veintiocho, 28 
veintinueve, 29 
treinta, 30 
treinta y uno, 31 
treinta y dos, 32 



treinta y nueve, 39 

cuarenta, 40 

cuarenta y uno, 41 

cuarenta y dos, 42 

cincuenta, 50 

cincuenta y uno, 51 

sesenta, 60 

setenta, 70 

ochenta, 80 

noventa, 90 

ciento, 100 

ciento uno, 101 

ciento veintiocho, 128 

ciento noventa y nueve, 199 

doscientos, 200 

doscientos uno, 201 

doscientos noventa y nueve, 299 

trescientos, 300 

cuatrocientos, 400 

quinientos, 500 

seiscientos, 600 

setecientos, 700 

ochocientos, 800 

novecientos, 900 

mil, 1,000 

mil uno, 1,001 

mil dos, 1,002 

mil novecientos noventa y nueve, 
1,999 

dos mil, 2,000 
dos mil uno, 2,001 
dos mil trescientos veintiocho, 
2,328 

tres mil, 3,000 
cuatro mil, 4,000 
diez mil, 10,000 
cien mil, 100,000 





14 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§21 


un millon, 1,000,000 
un millon uno, 1,000,001 
un millon, trescientos cuarenta y 
cinco mil, quinientos dieciocho, 
1,345,518 

dos millones, 2,000,000 


dos millones uno, 2,000,001 
tres millones, 3,000,000 
mil millones, 1,000,000,000 
un billon, 1,000,000,000,000 
mil billones, 1,000,000,000,000,000 


29. In Spanish, as in English, the names of the num¬ 
bers may be either adjectives, substantivized adjectives, or 
substantives. As adjectives, they precede the nouns they 
modify, but follow pronouns and substantivized demonstra¬ 
tive adjectives. The following examples illustrate these 
three uses: 


Tengo veinte pesos. 
dCuantos pesos tiene usted? — 
Veinte. 

Veinte es mayor que diez. 
Nosotros tres vivimos aqul. 
dCuantos baules tiene usted? — No 
tengo sino Sstos dos. 


I have twenty dollars. 

How many dollars have you? — 
Twenty. 

Twenty is greater than ten. 

We three live here. 

How many trunks have you? —I 
have only these two. 


30. Uno and all numbers ending in -uno lose the final o 
before a masculine substantive or a substantive phrase con¬ 
sisting of a masculine substantive and its modifiers. Before 
feminine substantives, the o is replaced by a. 


un peso; unEL botella 

veinti un pesos; veintiwwa botellas 

ciento un pesos; ciento unsi bo¬ 
tellas 

cuarenta y mi miserables emigran- 
tes con cuarenta y ««a misera¬ 
bles familias 

When a number ending i 
thousand, the final o of uno is 

treinta y un mil botellas 
ciento un mil familias 


one dollar; one bottle 
twenty-one dollars; twenty-one 
bottles 

one hundred one dollars; one 
hundred one bottles 
forty-one wretched emigrants with 
forty-one wretched families 

-uno is multiplied by one 
invariably dropped. 

thirty-one thousand bottles 
one hundred one thousand families 


31. With the exception of numbers ending in -uno, and 
the hundred multiples ( doscientos, trescientos , etc.) between 
one hundred and nine hundred, the names of all numbers 






§21 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


15 


have only one form for the two genders. Those between 
one hundred and one thousand change the ending -os into -as 


for the feminine, whether they 
other numbers. 

cuatro botellas; cinco casas 
doscientSLS mujeres 
tresciejitSLS once cajas 
cuatrocient&s mil quin lent as vein- 
tioclio locomotoras 


stand alone or are followed by 

four bottles; five houses 
two hundred women 
three hundred eleven boxes 
four hundred thousand five hun¬ 
dred twenty-eight locomotives 


32. Ciento loses the syllable -to before a substantive or 
substantive phrase, regardless of gender; also, before mil, 
but not before lower numbers. 


cien hombres sentados en cien her- 
mosas sillas 
cien mil cien ninas 

ciento ochenta y cinco 


one hundred men seated in one 
hundred handsome chairs 
one hundred thousand one hun¬ 
dred girls 

one hundred eighty-five 


33. Neither ciento nor mil should be preceded by un; 
that is, the English a or one in a hundred, one thousand has 
no Spanish equivalent; or, rather, it is included in the words 
ciento and mil themselves. 


mil doscientos pesos one thousand two hundred dollars 

ciento veinte caballos one hundred twenty horses 


In such expressions as trescientos un mil, 301,000, the un 
forms part of the number 301, and is not by itself a 
modifier of mil. 

34. The conjunction y is used only with numbers between 
thirty and forty, forty and fifty, etc., up to noventa y nueve, 99. 


doscientos treinta y cinco {not, 
doscientos y treinta y cinco) 


two hundred thirty-five 


35. Reckoning by hundreds does not extend above 
novecientos, 900. It would not be permissible to say 
quince cientos, veinticuatro cientos for mil quinientos, dos mil 
cuatrocientos. 






16 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§21 


36. Millon , billbn , trillon , etc. are always treated as 
masculine collective substantives, and should be preceded by 
un, when used in the singular. When preceded by a cardinal 
higher than uno , they take the plural forms millones, biltones , 
etc. A noun preceded by a cardinal expressing a round 
number of millions should be preceded by de; otherwise, the 
preposition is not used. The same remark applies to billon , 
trillon , and, in general, to all collective numerals. 


un millon de habitantes 
tres billones de millas 
un millon cuatrocientas mil tone- 
ladas 


one million inhabitants 
three billion miles 
one million four hundred thou 
sand tons 


Remark. —It will be observed that, in Spanish, one billion is one 
million millions, not one thousand millions. Likewise, one trillion is 
one million billions. 


37. Ambos.— This numeral is equivalent to los dos, 
the two , and is rendered by both. When it refers to a plural 
subject, or to two substantives connected by y, which are 
subjects of the same verb, it should be placed after the 
verb, never before the two substantives, as both often is in 
English. 

Ambos poetas vivieron en el siglo 
XVI (diez y seis). 

He leido ambas obras. 

Mand&mos mercancias por ambos 
vapores. 

Don Juan Concha y su senora 
viven ambos aqui {never, 

Ambos don Juan Concha y 
su senora viven aqui). 

Nosotros trabajamos ambos en 
esta fabrica (never, Nosotros 
ambos trabajamos en esta 
fdbrica). 

38. Ambos is always either an adjective or a pronoun, 
and cannot, therefore, be employed in rendering English 
expressions in which both has an adverbial or conjunctional 
value. Thus, the sentence, I am both tired and sick , cannot 
be translated, Estoy ambos cansado y enfermo; nor can the 


Both poets lived in the 16th cen¬ 
tury. 

I have read both works. 

We sent goods by both steamers. 

Mr. John Concha and his wife 
both live here {or. Both Mr. 
John Concha and his wife live 
here). 

We both work in this factory. 




§21 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


17 


phrase both here and there be rendered by ambos aqiii y 
alia. In such cases, it is necessary to give the Spanish 
sentence a form different from the English. 


Estoy cansado y enfermo. 

Estoy cansado, asi como en¬ 
fermo. 

Eso sucede aqui, como alld. 

Eso sucede aqui tanto como 
al 14. 


( I am both tired and sick ( liter¬ 
ally>, I am tired and sick). 

I am tired, as well as sick. 

That happens both here and 
there ( literally , That happens 
• here, as there). 

That happens here as much as 
there. 


39. Ambos is never joined to a personal pronoun, either 
immediately or through the preposition de. Instead of form¬ 
ing combinations of this kind, it is used by itself as a 
pronoun. 


Acabo de ver al doctor Gomez 
y al general Aguilera; ambos 
llegaron en un buque de guerra 
espanol. 


I have just seen Doctor Gomez 
and General Aguilera; they both 
arrived on a Spanish warship. 


Here it would not be permissible to say ellos ambos nor 
ambos de ellos. 


40. In negative sentences, the meaning of the verb 


applies to only one of the two 

Arnbas proposiciones no pueden 
ser verdaderas. 

Ambos (better, Los dos ) no sali- 
mos por el mismo vapor. 


things denoted by ambos. 

Both propositions cannot be true. 

We do not both leave by the same 
steamer. 


41. As a pronoun, ambos resembles personal pronouns 
in that it may either precede or follow the accusative case, 
when it is employed in a redundant accusative construction. 


Dos veo a ambos. 

A ambos los veo. 1 

Creo que los vendimos ambos. 

Creo que ambos los vendimos. 


I see them both. 

I think we sold them both. 


Remark. —The numeral entrambos has the same signification as 
ambos , but the latter is more common. 


The preposition d indicates that reference is made to people. 










18 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§21 


ORDINAL NUMERALS 

42. The following table shows how the ordinal numerals 
up to centesimo, hundredth, are formed, and gives a few 
higher ordinals of frequent use: 


primero, first 

segundo, second 

tercero, third 

cuarto, fourth 

quinto, fifth 

sexto, sixth 

setimo, j 

septimo, /' 

octavo, eighth 

noveno, 1 ... 

> ninth 
nono, J 

decimo, tenth 

undecimo, eleventh 

duodecimo, twelfth 

decimo tercio, thirteenth 

decimo cuarto, fourteenth 

decimo quinto, fifteenth 

decimo sexto, sixteenth 

decimo setimo, 1 . 

,, . , > seventeenth 

decimo septimo, J 


> seventh 


decimo octavo, eighteenth 

decimo noveno, 1 
,, . > nineteenth 

decimo nono, J 

vigesimo, twentieth 

vigesimo primero, twenty-first • 

vigesimo segundo, twenty-second 

trigesimo, thirtieth 

trigesimo primero, thirty-first 

cuadragesimo, fortieth 

quincuagesimo, fiftieth 

sexagesimo, sixtieth 

septuagesimo, seventieth 

octagesimo, eightieth 

nonagesimo, ninetieth 

centesimo, hundredth 

milesimo, thousandth 

diez milesimo, ten thousandth 

millonesimo, millionth 


43. The ordinals above decimo are comparatively little 
used, the cardinals taking their place. A cardinal thus 
employed should ordinarily follow the noun it modifies. 


capitulo octavo, versiculo veinti- 
cuatro 

Pio Quinto; Felipe Segundo 
Carlos Doce; Luis Dieciseis 


chapter eighth,twenty-fourth verse 

Pius the Fifth; Philip the Second 
Charles the Twelfth; Louis the 
Sixteenth 


With the days of the month, primero is the only ordinal 
used, the cardinals applying to all the other days. 


el primero de enero 
el cuatro de julio 
el veintisiis de mayo 
el treinta y uno de agosto 


the first of January 
the fourth of July 
the twenty-sixth of May 
| the thirty-first of August 





21 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


19 


44. Primero and tercero lose the final o before a masculine 
singular substantive. Before a feminine singular substan¬ 
tive, either the short forms primer , tercer , or the complete 
forms primera , tercera are permissible; but the latter are 
generally preferred. 


el primer capltulo; el tercer edi- 
ficio 

la primera ocasion; la tercera cir¬ 
cular 

los primeros acontecimientos 


the first chapter; the third build¬ 
ing 

the first occasion; the third cir¬ 
cular 

the first events 


PARTITIVE NUMERALS 

45. Formation of Partitives. —The partitives corre¬ 
sponding to the first ten integral numbers have special names, 
nearly all of which are the same as those of the respective 
ordinals. After ten, the partitive is formed by adding -avo 
to the cardinal, the latter undergoing no change of form, 
whether it ends in a vowel or in a consonant. For numbers 
ending in mil , millon , billon , trillon , however, the ending 
-esimo is preferred. This ending serves likewise for the 
formation of ordinals, as illustrated in Art. 42. The form 
cente simo is preferable to cienaxo, one-hundredth. 


un medio, one-halt 
un tercio, one-third 
un cuarto, one-fourth 
un quinto, one-fifth 
un sexto, one-sixth 
un setimo, one-seventh 
un octavo, one-eighth 
un noveno, one-ninth 
un decimo, one-tenth 
un onceavo, one-eleventh 
un doceavo, one-twelfth 
un treinta-y-cuatroavo, one thir¬ 
ty-fourth 

siete doscientosavos, seven two- 
hundredths 


cinco mil-trescientos-veinticinco- 
avos, five thirteen-hundred- 
twenty-fifths. 

un centesimo, one-hundredth 
siete centesimos, seven htm- 
dredths 

dos milesimos, two thousandths 
tres cuarenta-milesimos, three 
forty-thousandths 

cinco millonesimos, five mil¬ 
lionths . 

nueve diez-millonesimos, nine 
ten-millionths 


46. Remarks on the Partitives. -These numerals 
are always masculine substantives, and, as in the case of 





20 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


21 


collective numerals, the names of the things to which they 
refer should be preceded by the preposition de, but not by 
the indefinite article. 


un tercio de yarda 
cuatro quintos de legua 
ocho centesimos de pulgada 


one-third of a yard 
four-fifths of a league 
eight-hundredths, of an inch 


This rule applies to un medio , in arithmetical language; 
but, in ordinary language, medio is used as an adjective, and 
is neither preceded by un nor followed by de. 

medio peso; media hora , | half a dollar; half an hour 

47. Outside of mathematical terminology, ten (or, una) is 
omitted when it forms the integral part of a mixed number; 
it is also omitted before medio and cuarto, when these parti¬ 
tives form the fractional part of a mixed number, and are 
therefore preceded by y. 


Lo hemos esperado hora y tres 
cuarto s. 

Tenemos cuatro barriles y medio 
(or, cuatro y medio barrilles) de 
naranjas. 

Hace mas de hora y cuarto que 
llego el vapor. 


We have waited for you an hour 
and three-quarters. 

We have four'and a half barrels 
of oranges. 

The steamer arrived more than 
an hour and a quarter ago. 


48. Partitive Plirases Formed With the Substan¬ 
tive Parte.— The ordinal numerals from tercero to decimo , 
and the partitives after dScimo , preceded by the definite 
or by the indefinite article and followed by parte, part , 
are employed to form phrases having the same meanings 
as the corresponding partitive substantives: la tercera parte, 
for instance, has the same meaning as un tercio , and la 
veinticuatroava parte is equivalent to un veinticuatroavo. 
The employment of the article in expressions of this kind 
was explained in Part 5. The use of the substantive mitad, 
half, which, preceded by the definite article, takes in ordinary 
language the place of un medio, one-half, was illustrated 
there also. 




21 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


21 


APOCOPATION OF ADJECTIVES 


APOCOPATED FORMS 


49. Definitions. —Some adjectives lose one or more of 
their final letters when they precede the substantives they 
modify. This alteration is called apocopation, and the short 
form resulting therefrom is called an apocopated form. 
The unapocopated adjective is called the full form. 

50. Adjectives Undergoing Apocopation. —The fol¬ 
lowing table gives the adjectives that have both a full and 
an apocopated form: 


Apocopated Form 
algun 
buen 
cien 

cualquier 

gran 

ningun 

postrer 

primer 

sail 

tercer 

mi 


Full Form 
alguno, some 
bueno, good 
ciento, a hundred 
cualquiera, any 
grande, great, large 
ninguno, not any 
postrero, last 
primero, first . 
santo, saint 
tercero, third 
uno, a, one 


To these must be added all cardinals ending in -uno (see 
Art. 30). , ; . . 


employment of apocopated forms 


51. General Rule. —No adjective undergoes apocopation 
when it is used substantively , nor when it follows the substan¬ 
tive it modifies., nor when it modifies a plural substantive. 

52. Algun, Ningun, Un, Buen, Mai. -These forms 
are exclusively masculine. They must immediately precede 
the substantive or substantive phrases they modify. 





22 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


21 


Eso debe de haber sucedido en 
algun pais barbaro, 6 durante 
alguna guerra. 

Ningun descubrimiento ha re- 
querido tanto estudio; ningun a 
demostracibn , tanta paciencia. 

El emperador, que era un buen 
hombre, creia que su esposa era 
unn buena mujer. 

Nuestro buen segundo jefe murid 
de sus heridas. 


That must have happened in some 
barbarous country, or during 
some war. 

No discovery has required so 
much study; no demonstration, 
so much patience. 

The emperor, who was a good 
man, believed that his wife was 
a good woman. 

Our good second commander died 
of his wounds. 


In the last sentence, buen does not modify the substantive 
jefe alone, but the substantive phrase segundo jefe.. In the 
following phrase, apocopation is not permissible, because 
the adjective does not immediately precede the modified 
substantive: 

el bueno y amable senor Mar- I the good and amiable Mr. Mar- 
quez | quez 

For euphony, un , algun , ningun may precede a feminine 
noun beginning with an emphatic <z-sound. The full forms 
una, alguna, ningmia are, however, equally proper, and 
generally preferred. 

un a Ima, or, una alma a soul 

ningun lia rpa, or, ninguna no harp 
\\arpa 

A singular adjective 'modified by an adverb usually follows 
its substantive, and is therefore not apocopated. 

un libro muy bueno I a very good book 

un presidente muy malo | a very bad president 

53. Cien. — For the use of this apocopated form, see 
Art. 32. 

54. Cualquier, Postrer, Primer, Tercer. —These 
forms are necessary before masculine substantives. Before 
feminine substantives, they are permissible, but the full 
forms are preferred. 




21 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


23 


cualquier hombre 

cualquiera | 

. . \ miiier 

cualquier J J 

el postrer esfuerzo 
la postrera 
la postrer 


| palabn 


any man 
any woman 
the last effort 
the last word 


For primero and tercero, see Art. 44. 

One of the few exceptions to the rule governing the use 
of the apocopated forms here considered occurs in the 
following sentence of the Creed: 


“Resucito de entre los muertos al “He arose from the dead on the 
tercero dia.” third day.” 

55. Gran.—This form should be used before a substan¬ 
tive of either gender beginning with a consonant sound. 
Before a substantive beginning with a vowel sound, either 
the full or the apocopated form is permissible, but the 
former is preferable. 


un gran libro; una gran nation 

un grande] , . . 

}• acontecimiento 

un gran J 

un grande 

un gran 

una grande] . 

\invencion 

una gran J 


\ hombre 


a great book; a great nation 
a great event 

a great man 

a great invention 


Occasionally, the full form is employed for emphasis before 
a noun beginning with a consonant. 


Tu, Inglaterra, manchaste tu 
grande triunfo con el trata- 
miento que diste a tu ilustre 
prisionero. 


Thou, England, soiledst thy great 
victory with the treatment thou 
gavest thy illustrious prisoner. 


56. San.—This form occurs only before the names of 
saints of the male sex, with which it forms compound names 
by which certain personages are usually known. In all other 
cases, the full form santo should be employed. 


San Pablo; San Andres 
Santa Ana; Santa Cecilia 
el santo Buda 
el santo padre (el papa) 
un santo consolador 


St. Paul; St. Andrew 
St. Ann; St. Cecilia 
the holy Buddha 
the Holy Father (the pope) 
a saintly comforter 







24 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


21 


Exceptions. —The full form is prefixed to the names 
Domingo, Dominic; Tomas or Tome, Thomas; and Tori- 
bio, Toribius. 

Santo Domingo; Santo Tom&s | St. Dominic; St. Thomas 

Remark. —The Spanish name of the island of St. Thomas is San 
Tomas (emphasis on the o), not Santo Tomas. 


THE VERB 


THE SUBJUNCTIVE AND THE HYPOTHETIC MODE 


INTRODUCTORY DEFINITIONS 

57. Time Forms and Verbal Derivatives.—The 
infinitive, the participle, and the gerund are called verbal 
derivatives. All other verbal forms are called time 
forms, or tenses, of the verb. They are also called 
predicating forms, as they are indispensable elements 
of the predicate of every sentence, there being no predicate, 
and therefore no sentence, without a verbal time form. 
When the term verb is applied without any qualification 
to one of the words entering a phrase or sentence, a time 
form is meant. 

58. Propositions —The Complex Sentence.—Every 
complete expression that contains a verb is called a propo¬ 
sition. A proposition may form a sentence, or it may 
enter a sentence simply as one of its component elements 
(see Part 4). A sentence consisting of two or more propo¬ 
sitions is called a complex sentence. In the following 
complex sentences, the different propositions are enclosed 
in brackets: 


[Le hablare] [cuando venga]. 

[Si ustedes desean ver el vapor,] 
[yo tendre mucho gusto en 
presentarlos al capitan.] 


I shall speak to him when he 
comes. 

If you wish to see the steamer, I 
will be very glad to introduce 
you to the captain. 






§21 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


25 


[Newton prob6] [que la tierra y 
la luna se atraen segun la ley 
de la gravitacion.] 


Newton proved that the earth and 
the moon attract each other 
according to the law of gravi¬ 
tation. 


When a proposition contains and is introduced by a con¬ 
nective word, such as cuando, si, and que, in the examples 
just given, and serves to complement another proposition, it 
is called a dependent proposition. With respect to a 
dependent proposition, the complemented proposition is 
called the principal. The verb in a principal proposition 
is called the principal verb; that in a dependent proposi¬ 
tion, the dependent verb. 

59. The Announcing: Que.— When, as in the third 
example in Art. 58, the word qu£ serves to introduce a 
dependent proposition, it is called the announcing que 
(Spanish, que anunciativo) — a self-explaining name clearly 
indicating the functions of the word to which it is applied. A 
very important principle that the student should carefully 
observe is that (with a few exceptions to be afterwards 
pointed out) the announcing que should not be omitted after 
a verb, as its equivalent that is in English. 


Creo que usted habla el espanol 
muy bien. 

El secretario me dijo que, si usted 
deseaba verlo, el estaria en su 
oficina manana k las diez. 


I think you speak Spanish very 
well. 

The secretary told me, if you 
wished to see him, he would be 
in his office tomorrow at ten 
o’clock. 


USE OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE IN PROPOSITIONS INTRODUCED 
BY THE ANNOUNCING QUE 

60. After Verbs Expressing Desire.—The verb in 
a dependent proposition introduced by the announcing que and 
performing the office of accusative of a verb expressing desire 
should be in the subjunctive mode. In this rule are included 
not only verbs in which desire is explicitly stated, but also 
those in which the same idea is more or less indirectly 
implied, being expressed in the form of a command, request, 





26 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§21 


entreaty, suggestion, prohibition, resolution, or the like. 
The Spanish subjunctive entering expressions of this kind 
may sometimes be rendered by the English subjunctive, but 
in the majority of cases it is better rendered by the infinitive. 
The subject of the subjunctive verb in the Spanish dependent 
proposition is often omitted, being understood, especially if 
the thing denoted by it has been already mentioned in the 
principal proposition. 


Deseo que usted escriba esta 
carta. 

Don Pedro quiere que le pague- 
mos antes del fin del mes. 


Los duenos de las factorias quertan 
que los obreros trabajasen 
doce horas por dla. 

Senores, deseo que nos enten- 
damos. 

El capitan ordend que la tripula- 
cion deseolgase los botes. 

He resuelto que usted regrese 
a la Argentina por el vapor del 
sabado. 

Hijo mio, ^no te prohibi que lia- 
blaras a esos muchachos? 

Le suplico que me perdone. 

Nos rogaron que entrasemos. 

El senador Arango propuso que el 
presidente nombrara los 
miembros de la comision. 

El concilio decretb que los herejes 
fuesen excomulgados, y pio- 
hibid que los fieles leyesen 
sus libros. 

Pido que la votacion sea secreta. 

Suplique k su senora madre que 
tenga la bondad de enviarle 
estas cartas k don Ramon. 


I wish you to write this letter 
{more literally , I wish that you 
write this letter). 

Mr. Peter wishes us to {more lit¬ 
erally, Mr. Peter wishes that we) 
pay him before the end of the 
month. 

The owners of the factories wished 
the working men to work twelve 
hours a day. 

Gentlemen, I wish that we should 
understand each other. 

The captain ordered the crew to 
lower the boats. 

I have decided that you return 
to the Argentine by Saturday’s 
steamer. 

My dear son, did I not forbid 
you to speak to those boys? 

I beg you to pardon me. 

They requested us to come in. 

Senator Arango proposed that the 
president should appoint the 
members of the commission. 

The council decreed that the 
heretics should be excommuni¬ 
cated, and forbade the faithful 
to read their books. 

I ask that the voting be secret. 

Request your mother to have the 
kindness to send these letters to 
Mr. Ramon. 


61. The forms of desear, to desire , are understood after 
some imperatives, and the subjunctive mode is employed, as 




§21 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


27 


if those forms were expressed. Thus, the first of the two 
following sentences is an abbreviated form of the second: 


Digale que entre. 

Digale que yo deseo que entre. 


Tell him to come in. 

Tell him that I wish him to come 
in. 


The imperative itself is an abbreviated complex sentence 
in which only the dependent proposition is expressed, the 
verb in the tacit principal proposition being a form of desear , 
as appears from the following examples: 


I Escriba esta carta. 

Deseo que usted escriba esta 
carta. 

Que me espere. 

Deseo que me espere. 

Que nadie hable. 

Deseo que nadie liable. 


Write this letter. 

I wish you to write this letter. 

Let him wait for me. 

I wish him to wait for me. 

Let no one speak. 

I wish that no one should speak. 


As stated in Part 2, and as shown by these examples, the 
imperative of the third person is usually preceded by que— a 
word that clearly points to the implied form of the governing 
verb desear. 


62. The interjection ojald , which literally means would 
that , is equivalent to yo deseo, I desire, and requires, there¬ 
fore, the subjunctive form of the verb following. The 
announcing que may be employed or not, at pleasure, after 
ojald; if omitted, the verb should be placed immediately 
after the interjection. 

Ojald que no llueva hoy. 

Ojald no llueva hoy. 

Ojald que nuestro presidente 
viva. 

. Ojald viva nuestro presidente 

63. After Verbs or Plirases Expressing Command, 
Compulsion, Necessity, Permission, Prohibition, or 
Hindrance. —This application of the subjunctive is similar 
to that explained in Art. 60, and the resulting sentences are 


I hope it will not rain today ( lit¬ 
erally , Would that it may not 
rain today). 

Would that our president may 
live. 





28 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


21 


similarly translated, although here the English subjunctive is 
generally preferable to the infinitive. 


La Constitucion manda que el 
presidente sea elegido por el 
pueblo. 

Las circunstancias exigian que 
avanzasemos muydespacio. 

La ley requiere que la crimina- 
lidad del reo sea decidida por 
el jurado, no por el juez. 

La doctrina Monroe no permite 
que las naciones de Europa 
funden nuevas colonias en 
America. 

Nos prohibieron que entrase- 
mos k los cuarteles, pero nos 
per mi tier on que vlsjtasem os 
las fortificaciones. 

La politica ha impedido que nues- 
tras relaciones con Cuba sean 
m4s amistosas. 

Hay necesidad de que nos em- 
barquemos hoy mismo. 

Me parece indispensable que us- 
tedes lean el documento. 


The Constitution directs that the 
president be elected by the peo¬ 
ple. 

The circumstances required that 
we should advance very slowly. 

The law requires that the crim¬ 
inality of the culprit be decided 
by the jury, not by the judge. 

The Monroe Doctrine does not per¬ 
mit that the nations of Europe 
should found new colonies in 
America. 

We were forbidden to enter the 
barracks, but were allowed to 
visit the forts. 

Politics has prevented that our re¬ 
lations with Cuba should be 
more friendly {or, better, our 
relations with Cuba from being 
more friendly). 

It is necessary {literally, There is 
necessity) that we should em¬ 
bark this very day. 

I think it indispensable that you 
should read the document. 


64. After Verbs Expressing Feeling or Emotion. 
Under this heading are included verbs denoting feelings of 
pleasure, dissatisfaction, approval, preference, expectation, 
hope, wonder, surprise, etc. The Spanish subjunctive 
employed in dependent propositions governed by such 
verbs is rendered sometimes by the English indicative, 
sometimes by the subjunctive. 


Siento que usted no este bien. 
Le agradezco que me lo haya 

dicho. 

Nosescribieron que sentian mucho 
que hiibiesemos cambia- 
. do de resolucion. 


I regret that you are not well. 

I thank you for having told it to 
me {literally, I thank you that 
you have told it to me). 

They wrote to us they were very 
sorry we had changed our 
minds. 




21 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


29 


Me alegro que sus negocios mar- 
chen tan bien. 

Los medicos temian que el enfer- 
mo muriese aquella noche. 
Preferimos que usted liable con 
el personalmente. 

A mi padre no le gusto, que noso- 
tros fumemos. 

Aguardo que usted me excuse. 
Me sorprende que el rio liaya 
subido tanto en tan corto 
tiempo. 

Confio en que usted obre cauta- 
mente. 

65 

be mentioned lograr 
obteuer, to obtain. 

A1 fin logre que esos senores me 

pagasen. 

He conseguido que nos prolon- 
guen el plazo. 

Despues de mucho trabajo, obtuve 
que me dejaran pasar. 


I am glad that your business is 
going so well. 

The physicians feared that the 
patient would die that night. 

We prefer that you speak with 
him personally. 

My father does not like us to 
smoke ( literally , that we should 
smoke). 

I hope you will excuse me. 

It surprises me that the river has 
risen so much in so short a 
time. 

I trust you will act cautiously. 


At last I succeeded in having 
those gentlemen pay me. 

I have got them to extend our 
time (or, I have obtained an 
extension of time from them). 

After a great deal of trouble, I 
succeeded in being (literally, 
obtained to be) allowed to pass. 


After Verbs of Attainment. —Among these may 
to succeed; conseguir, to get; and 


66. In Subject Propositions of Impersonal Sen¬ 
tences.— In the following sentence, the proposition intro¬ 
duced by que performs the office of a substantive serving as 
the subject of the sentence: 

Es evidente que la tierra gira [ It is evident that the earth re- 
alrededor del sol. | volves about the sun. 

In the English translation, the grammatical subject is the 
indefinite pronoun it. This pronoun, when so employed, 
has no Spanish equivalent. The dependent proposition 
(or clause , as it is called in English grammar) introduced by 
that may, by a change in the order of words —a change equally 
permissible in Spanish —become the subject of the English 
sentence. 




30 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§21 


Que la tierra gira alrededor del sol, That the earth revolves about the 
es evidente. sun, is evident. 

Sentences like this, in which the subject is a proposition, 
are called impersonal sentences. 


67. When, as in the example just considered, the express 
purpose of an impersonal sentence is to affirm or deny the 
fact denoted by the verb in the subject proposition, that 
verb should be in the indicative mode; otherwise, in the 
subjunctive. 


Basta que listed'lo diga. 

Urge que llegnemos manana 
a la ciudad. 

Importaba que publicasemos 
la carta antes de nuestra par¬ 
ti da. 

No tiene nada de raro que los 
ignorantes aun continuen 
buscando el movimiento per- 
petuo. 

Es extrano que esos generos no 
hayan llegado aun. 

Es probable que el cambio suba 
dentro de una 6 dos semanas. 

Mi padre me escribio que era me- 
jor que yo no me casase antes 
de concluir mis estudios. 

Es curioso que las virtudes de un 
hombre vivo rara vez sean 
reconocidas , y que las de un 
hombre muerto rara vez sean 
negadas. 

Es de esperarse que el sehor Gue¬ 
rrero acepte la propuesta. 

Era de temerse que la com- 
pania quebrase. 


It is sufficient that you say it. 

It is urgent that we should arrive 
at the city tomorrow. 

It was important that we should 
publish the letter before our 
departure. 

It is not at all strange that the 
ignorant should still continue 
looking for perpetual motion. 

It is strange that those goods have 
not yet arrived. 

It is likely that the par of ex¬ 
change will rise within one or 
two weeks. 

My father wrote to me that it 
was better that I should not 
marry (or, for me not to marry) 
before finishing my studies. 

It is curious that the virtues of a 
living man are seldom recog¬ 
nized, and that those of a dead 
man are seldom denied. 

It is to be hoped that Mr. Guer¬ 
rero will accept the proposition. 

It was to be feared that the com¬ 
pany would (or, might) fail. 


68. After Verbs or Phrases Expressing Doubt, 
Denial, or Uncertainty. — In constructions of this kind, 
the Spanish subjunctive is rendered sometimes by the 




21 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


31 


English indicative, sometimes by the potential (form with 


may, can, might, could, would, 

La compania dudaba que los in- 
genieros terminasen sus tra- 
bajos en el tiempo estipulado. 

No me parece que usted tenga 
razon. 

No crei que las letras sobre los 
Estados Unidos estuviesen 
& la par. 


should ). 

The company doubted that the 
engineers would finish their 
work in the stipulated time. 

It does not seem to me that you 
are right. 

I did not think that drafts on the 
United States were at par. 


69. With regard to interrogative principal propositions 
containing the verb creer, to believe, it is necessary to make 
a distinction. If that verb indicates belief in the sense of 
certainty or conviction, the dependent verb should be in the 
indicative mode; in all other cases, in the subjunctive. 


iCree usted que Dios existe? 
iCree usted que Mahoma re- 
cibio el Coran de un dngel ? 

iCreia Darwin que el hombre 
desciende del mono? 


Do you believe that God exists? 

Do you believe that Mohammed 
received the Koran from an 
angel ? 

Did Darwin believe that man de¬ 
scends from the ape? 


In all these examples, creer indicates conviction. In the 
following, it indicates conjecture or supposition: 


iCree usted que el doctor este 
ahora en su oficina? 
iCreen ustedes que el reo baya 
cometido el crimen? 


Do you think that the doctor is 
now at his office? 

Do you think that the culprit 
has committed the crime? 


70. In interrogative sentences relating to a future event, 
and containing a governing verb of doubt or uncertainty in 
the principal proposition, the dependent verb may be put 
either in the subjunctive present or in the indicative future. 

iCree usted que el vapor llegue Do you think the steamer will 
(or, llegara) temprano? | arrive early? 


71. To Render tlie English Present Participle 
Preceded by a Possessive. —The gerund is not employed 
in Spanish as a substantive, and English expressions that 
contain, or are equivalent to others that contain this verbal 





32 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§21 


derivative (usually called present participle ) preceded by a 
possessive adjective or case, or by a substantive which is 
its subject, are rendered by means of the announcing que or 
the phrase el qne followed by a subjunctive form. Propo¬ 
sitions introduced by el que will be treated in a subsequent 
article. 


Tales son las consecuencias de 
que listed liaya obrado con 
tanta ligereza. 

Los antecedentes contribulan k que 
los naturales dudasen de la 
buena fe de los conquistadores. 

^Quien fue responsable de que el 
toro xnatase k los dos ninos? 


Insisto en que abramos un tunel 
para atravesar la cordillera. 

No hay peligro de esta bomba 

estalle. 

Nadie sabe la causa de que la isla 
bay a desaparecido. 

No pudimos pasar sin que el cen- 
tinela nos viese. 


Such are the consequences of 
your having acted with so much 
hastiness. 

The antecedents contributed to 
the natives’ doubting the good 
faith of the conquerors. 

Who was responsible that the bull 
killed the two children ( more 
literally , for the bull killing 
the two children) ? 

I insist on our opening a tunnel 
to cross the mountain. 

There is no danger of this shell 
exploding. 

No one knows the cause of the 
island having disappeared. 

We could not pass without the 
sentinel seeing us. 


72. Omission of the Announcing Que.—The 

announcing que is occasionally omitted before a sub¬ 
junctive form, when the governing verb expresses desire, 
request, command, or emotion. This, however, is done 
comparatively rarely and only when no word intervenes 
between the principal proposition and the dependent verb. 
As no fixed rule can be given on this subject, the best course 
for the learner to pursue is to employ que in all cases of 
doubt. 


Deseo me examine usted muy 
cuidadosamente. 

Suplico a usted perdone mi indis- 
crecion. 

El congreso ordeno fuesen reins- 
talados los conventos. 

Siento llegtie usted tan tarde. 

Temiamos lloviese aquella noche. 


I wish you to examine me very 
carefully. 

I request you to pardon my indis¬ 
cretion. 

Congress ordered that the con¬ 
vents should be reinstated. 

I am sorry you arrive so late. 

We feared it might rain that night. 




§21 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


33 


73. _ Que is also often omitted before the imperative of 
the third person, especially in elevated style, to express an 
humble supplication or an earnest wish. 


“Santificado sea el tu nombre. 
Veitga a nos el tu reino.” 

Descanse en paz. 

Quiera Dios que no tengas que 
arrepentirte de tu obstinada 
desobediencia. 

Dios se lo pague. — (A common 
phrase used by beggars as an 
expression of gratitude .) 

“Perezca el dia en que nacL” 


“Hallowed be thy name. Thy 
kingdom come.’’ 

May he rest in peace. 

God grant that thou mayest not 
have to repent of thy obstinate 
disobedience. 

God bless you ( literally , May God 
pay you for it). 

“Let the day perish wherein I 
was born.” 


USE OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE IN SUBORDINATE RELATIVE 

PROPOSITIONS 


74. After an Indefinite Antecedent or a Negative 
Principal Proposition. —When the principal proposition 
is negative, and also when the antecedent of a relative 
is indefinite, or denotes anything that may possess certain 
properties or qualifications, or fulfil certain requirements 
expressed in the subordinate proposition, the verb in 
this proposition should be in the subjunctive mode. 
This rule applies to dependent propositions introduced 
by the absolute quien; that is, when quien includes its 
antecedent. 


Necesito una persona que liable 
espanol. 

Los Estados Unidos no han pro- 
ducido matematicos que pue- 
dan compararse a Newton, 
Gauss 6 Lagrange. 

No pudimos encontrar un hotel 
que nos gustase. 

<;Hay alguien que crea seme- 
jante cosa? 

Cualquiera que haya probado 
ese remedio le dira que no sirve 
para nada. 

Haga lo que quiera. 


I need a person who speaks Span¬ 
ish. 

The United States has produced 
no mathematicians that can 
compare with Newton, Gauss, 
or Lagrange. 

We could not find a hotel that we 
liked. 

Is there any one who believes such 
a thing? 

Any one who has tried that rem¬ 
edy will tell you that it is good 
for nothing. 

Do whatever you please. 






34 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§21 


En esta ciudad no hay ninguno 
que comprenda las ventajas 
de la reforma que usted propone. 

No habla qnien nos ensenase 
el camino. 

Suplico a quienes lean este libro 
que lo lean con imparcialidad. 

Preguntele al primer hombre que 

encuentre. 

La politica lo ha cegado, y no hay 
argumento que lo convenza. 


There is no one in this city who 
understands the advantages of 
the reform you propose. 

There was no one to show us the 
road. 

I request those who may read this 
book to read it with impar¬ 
tiality. 

Ask the first man you meet. 

Politics has blinded him, and there 
is no argument that will con¬ 
vince him. 


75 . After the Adjective Cualquiera, and the 
Adverbs Comoquiera, Cuandoquiera, and Donde- 
qniera. — When these words are employed as antecedents 
of que , and the predicate of the subordinate proposition is 
presented as a possibility, supposition, or contingency, the 
verb in that proposition should be in the subjunctive. 


cualquier hombre que llegue 
cualquiera que sea su resolucion 
comoquiera que ustedes obren 
cuandoquiera que ellos nos esci*i- 
ban 

dondequiera que los encontre- 
mos 


any man that may arrive 
whatever his resolution may be 
however you may act 
whenever they may write to us 

wherever we may find them 


76 . After Donde and Como. — When these adverbs are 
employed indefinitely; that is, when donde does not denote a 
determinate or known place, nor como a determinate or 
known manner, the verb in the dependent proposition intro¬ 
duced by either of them should be placed in the subjunctive. 


Iremos a donde usted guste. 

El alcalde me dijo que lo apre- 
hendiera a usted donde lo en- 
contrase. 

Obrare como usted ordene. 

Me prometieron que harian las ma- 
quinas como yo las desease. 

Vaya donde el viva y entreguele 
estos papeles. 


We shall go wherever you please. 

The mayor told me to arrest you 
wherever I found you. 

I shall act as you may order. 

They promised me that they would 
make the machines as I might 
wish them. 

Go wherever he may live and 
deliver these papers to him. 





21 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


35 


In the following examples, donde refers to a definite 
place —a place supposed in advance to be known —and the 
indicative is, and should be, used: 

Vaya donde el vive. ] Go where he lives. 

Iremos a donde usted estnvo We shall go where you were yes- 
ayer. terday. 

A similar rule applies to como. 

Obrare como usted obra. | I shall act as you do (act). 

Me prometieron que harian las ma- They promised me they would 
quinas como yo las deseaba. make the machines as I wanted 

them. 

In the last example, the indicative form deseaba implies 
that those making the promise knew already how / wished 
the machines to be made. 


77 . After Cnando. — When the verb in a dependent 
proposition introduced by cuando, when , refers to a future 
time, it should be in the subjunctive mode. 

Le hablare cuando venga. I shall speak to him when he 

comes. 

Cuando el senor Gomez llegue, | When Mr. Gomez arrives, tell him 
digale que me espere. to wait for me. 


If the principal verb is in the preterit or copreterit and the 
dependent verb relates to a time subsequent to that indicated 
by the former verb, the dependent verb should be in the 
preterit subjunctive. 


Me dijo que, cuando usted lle- 
gase, le entregase esta carta. 
Sabiamos que, cuando el p&nico 
pasara, los precios bajarian. 


He told me, when you arrived, to 
deliver this letter to you. 

We knew that, when the panic 
should be over, the prices would 
go down. 


78 . When cuando means whenever , and the verb does not 
refer to the future, the indicative should be used. 


Cuando yo estudio mucho, no 
me siento bien. 

Cuando el secretario esta de mal 
humor, es mejor no hablarlq de 
negocios. 


When I study very much, I do not 
feel well. 

When the secretary is in bad 
humor, it is better not to talk 
to him about business. 



36 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§21 


79 . Dependent propositions introduced by cuando and 
expressing, not contingent events, but facts already accom¬ 
plished, require the indicative form of the verb. 


Cuando el vapor llego, nosotros 
no estabamos en el muelle. 

Bruto se suicido cuando vio que 
su causa y la de la republica 
estaban perdidas. 


When the steamer arrived, we 
were not on the wharf. 

Brutus committed suicide when 
he saw that his cause and that 
of the republic were lost. 


80 . In Dependent Propositions of Doubtful Predi¬ 
cate.— The character of propositions of this class will be 
explained by referring to the two following examples: 


Le dare lo que tengo. 
Le dare lo que tenga. 


I shall give you what I have. 

I shall give you whatever I may 
have. 


In the first sentence, the form tengo indicates as a certainty 
that the speaker has something, and, usually, that he knows 
what he has; in the second, the form tenga implies that the 
speaker does not know what he has, and, as an extreme case, 
that he does not know whether he has anything at all. 
Propositions in which the predicate is thus presented as 
indeterminate and uncertain will here be called proposi¬ 
tions of doubtful predicate. In them, the verb should 
be placed in the subjunctive mode. This is a general rule 
including many of those given in the foregoing articles; it 
applies to dependent propositions introduced by pure rela¬ 
tives, relative phrases, neuters, adverbs, or adverbial phrases. 
The following examples may serve as additional illustrations: 

El ladron me ordend que le diese The burglar ordered me to give 
cuanto tuviese. him all I had ( more literally, all 

I might have). 

[ The burglar was not supposed to know how much / had, nor even 
that I had anything.'] 

Creo que no recibire muchos ci- 
garros hoy; sin embargo, le en- 
viare los que reciba. 


I think I shall not receive many 
cigars today; however, I shall 
send you those I receive ( more 
literally, whatever number I 
may receive). 






§21 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


37 


Le entregare la carta tan pronto 
como el llegue. 

Venga a verme inmediatamente 
que termine sus calculos. 

Envie este telegrama to mas pronto 
que le sea posible. 


I shall deliver the letter to him as 
soon as he arrives. 

Come to see me as soon as you 
finish your calculations. 

Send this telegram as soon as pos¬ 
sible ( literally , the soonest that 
it may be possible for you). 


81 . After the Phrase El Que.—When the phrase 
el q^le means the fact that (see Part 5), and the purpose of 
the proposition it introduces is not exclusively to make a 
direct affirmation or negation, the verb in that proposition 
should be in the subjunctive mode. (Compare Arts. 66 
and 71.) 


Me sorprende el que usted hable 
espanol tan bien. 

El que el gobierno liaya pro- 
hibido la circulacion de ese 
libro prueba que el libro es in¬ 
moral. 

La gente de aquellos tiempos 
creia que el que un hombre no 
fuese eatolico era razon sufi- 
ciente para odiarlo y despre- 
ciarlo. 


I am surprised that you speak 
Spanish so well ( more literally , 
Your speaking Spanish so well 
surprises me). 

The fact that the government has 
forbidden the circulation of that 
book proves that the book is 
immoral. 

The people of those times be¬ 
lieved that the fact that a man 
was not a Catholic was a suf¬ 
ficient reason to hate and de¬ 
spise him. 


The same rule applies to the expression el lieclio de que, 
the fact that , which is equivalent to el que. 


El hecho de que el gobierno liaya prohlbido la circulacion, etc. 
La gente de aquellos tiempos creia que el hecho de que un hombre 
no fuese eatolico, etc. 


USE OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE AFTER CERTAIN CONJUNCTIVE 
AMD ADVERBIAL WORDS AND PHRASES 

82 . The subjunctive mode is employed in dependent 
propositions introduced by certain conjunctions, adverbs, 
and phrases of a conjunctive or adverbial character. In all 
these propositions the predicate is exhibited as a contingent, 
doubtful, or conditional future event, never as an actual fact. 





38 SPANISH GRAMMAR §21 

The student should remember that the verb of a proposi¬ 
tion whose purpose is to directly affirm the actual or future 
existence of that which is denoted by the verb, should be 
placed in the indicative mode. 

The main words and phrases governing the subjunctive 
are given in the following articles. Some of them could be 
brought under the rules already laid down, but are here 
given again for the sake of completeness. 

83. Time Expressions. —Most all of these consist of 
an adverb or preposition followed by que. 

inmediatamente 1 

que, >as soon as 

tan pronto como, J 

luego que, shortly after 

mientras, 1 

> as lone; as 

mientras que, J 

Before we declare the strike, let 
us think of what we must do 
after we have declared it. 


Whenever you write to me, give 
me an account of your studies, 
your friends, and your amuse¬ 
ments. 

Wait for me until I return. 

We shall return as soon as we can. 

After we breakfast, we shall go out 
to take a walk. 

I will remember thee as long as 1 
live. 

As long as you continue writing 
verses, you will be poor: poetry 
is no business. 

84. Expressions of Condition. —These, also, consist 
of an adverb or a prepositional adverbial phrase followed by 
que. They all mean provided that or on condition that. 


antes que, 
antes de que, 
cuando, 
sienrpre que, 
despues que, 
despues de que 
liasta que, until 


> before 


> whenever 


,} 


after 


Antes que (or, Antes de que ) de- 
claremos la huelga, pense- 
mos en lo que debemos hacer 
despues que (or, despues de que ) 
la liayamos declarado. 
Cuando (or, Siempre que ) me es- 
cribas, dame cuenta de tus 
estudios, tus amigos y tus diver- 
siones. 

Aguardeme hasta que yo re- 

gp*ese. 

Regresaremos tan pronto como po- 

damos. 

Luego que almorcemos sal- 
dremos b dar un paseo. 

Me acordare de ti mientras viva. 

Mientras que usted continue es- 
cribiendo versos, Serb pobre: la 
poesia no es negocio. 




§21 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


39 


Ire, con la condicion de que usted 
envie un coche por mi. 

Dijo que terminaria el camino 
antes del fin del rues, con tal 
que el numero de trabajadores 
no disminuyese. 

Cortaremos estos drboles, siempre 
que el ingeniero lo crea nece- 
sario. 

85. Adverbs of Uncert 

mentioned quiza, quizds, tal i 

Quiza le venda mi caballo al 
doctor Rojas. 

Tal ves enviemos nuestro hijo 
a Alemania. 

Creiamos que tal vez la erupcion 
del volcan cesase pronto. 


I shall go, on condition that you 
send a carriage for me. 

He said he would finish the road 
before the end of the month, 
provided the number of labor¬ 
ers did not diminish. 

We shall cut down these trees, 
provided the engineer thinks it 
necessary. 

inty. — Among these may be 
all of which mean perhaps. 

I shall perhaps sell my horse to 
Doctor Rojas. 

Perhaps we shall send our son to 
Germany. 

We thought that perhaps the 
eruption of the volcano would 
cease soon. 


In these cases, however, the future and postpreterit 
indicative may be substituted for the present and the 
preterit subjunctive, respectively. 


Quiza le vendere mi caballo al doctor Rojas. 

Creiamos que tal vez la erupcion del volcan cesaria pronto. 


86. Expressions of Purpose.—The expressions of 
this kind most commonly used are d di?i de que , de manera 
que , de modo que , que , and para que , all of which mean that. 


in order that; and no sea que 

Me envio unas muestras para que 
yo las examinase. 

Procedamos con moderacion, de 
modo que el publico no crea 
que estamos movidos por pa- 
siones indignas. 

Hable en voz baja, que no nos 

oigan. 

No hable tan recio, no sea que 

nos oigan. 


, lest. 

He sent me some samples for 
me to examine ( literally , that I 
might examine them). 

Let us act with moderation, that 
the public may not think we 
are prompted by unworthy pas¬ 
sions. 

Speak in a low tone, that they 
may not hear us. 

Do not speak so loud, lest they 
should hear us. 


87. Under this heading may be included some idiomatic 
expressions formed by the verbs ir, to go; venir, to come , 





40 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


21 


and a few others, followed by d que, which phrase indicates 
purpose and is literally equivalent to that, in order that, 
although in the majority of cases it is necessary to translate 
the Spanish sentence rather freely. 


Vengo a que me preste diez 
pesos. 

Ayer tarde fui a que el doctor 
me examinase. 


Hemos venido ci que ustedes nos 
ensenen su establecimiento. 


I come to borrow ten dollars from 
you ( literally , I come that you 
may lend me ten dollars). 

Yesterday afternoon I went and 
had the doctor examine me 
(,literally , I went that the doctor 
might examine me). 

We have come to ask you to ( or , 
to have you) show us your 
establishment. 


88. Expressions of Supposition, Concession, and 
Exception.—Among these may be mentioned aunque, 
aun cuando, even if, and a great many phrases with que, 
such as en caso que, in case that; sea que, whether; dar 
por sentado que, to take for granted that; a menos que, 
a no ser que, unless; etc. 


fisa no es la verdadera doctrina 
cristiana, aunque la Iglesia 
ensene lo contrario. 

Deje la ropa en casa del senor 
Lopez, aun cuando el no este 
alii. 

En caso que estos cigarros no le 
gusten, devuelvamelos 

Doy por sentado que la expedicion 
descubra el polo; mas ^cual 
sera la utilidad de semejante 
descubrimiento ? 

Supongamos que Bacon liaya 
escrito las obras atribuidas k 
Shakespeare. 

Hare el traje como este, a menos 
que usted lo desee diferente. 

A no ser que atribuyamos es- 
tas semejanzas al acaso, debe- 
mos aceptar la teoria trasfor- 
mista. 


That is not the true Christian 
doctrine, although the Church 
may teach the contrary. 

Leave the clothes at Mr. Lopez’s, 
even if he is not there. 

In case you do not like these 
cigars, return them to me. 

I grant that the expedition may 
discover the pole; but what will 
be the use of such a discovery? 

Let us suppose that Bacon wrote 
the works attributed to Shakes¬ 
peare. 

I shall make the dress like this 
one, unless you wish it different. 

Unless we attribute these similari¬ 
ties to chance, we must accept 
the transformist theory. 




§21 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


41 


81). The Expressions Por .... Que, Cuanto Mas . . . . 
Tanto Mas, Etc.—The following combinations require the 
subjunctive mode: 

por.... que, with an intervening adjective, adjectival 
phrase, or adverb. It may be rendered by hozvever or 
how .... soever. 

cuanto mas .... tanto mas, the more. . .. the more , and 
other equivalent expressions, such as mientras mas .... 
mas, mientras mas .... tanto mas; and also the corre¬ 
sponding expressions with menos, less, instead of mas. 
The intervening verb taking the place of the dots should 
be subjunctive. 


Por valeroso que un general sea, 
su valor le servira de poco, si 
no tiene juicio. 

Por mas que trate, no conse- 
guira el privilegio. 

No creo que lleguemos esta noche, 
por muy aprisa que navegue- 
mos. 

Por mucho que intrigue, y por 
muchos votos que compre, no 
serh elegido. 

Mientras mas le cobremos a 
ese hombre, tanto mas demorara 
el pago. 

Cuanto menos gasten ustedes 
en esa empresa, tanto mejor 
serh para ustedes. 

Mientras menos exijamos, tan¬ 
to mas obtendremos. 


However brave a general may be, 
his courage will avail him little, 
if he has no judgment. 

However much you may try, you 
will not obtain the privilege. 

I do not think we shall arrive 
tonight, however fast we may 
sail. 

No matter how much he may 
intrigue, and how many votes 
he may buy, he will not be 
elected. 

The more we dun that man, the 
longer he will delay payment. 

The less you spend in that under¬ 
taking, the better it will be for 
you. 

The less we demand, the more 
we shall obtain. 


OTHER USES OF TIIE SUBJUNCTIVE 

90 . With the Hypothetic Mode, to Express Disre¬ 
gard of, or Indifference to, Certain Possibilities. 
When the Spanish verb entering an expression of this kind 
has no subject, the subjunctive is usually rendered by the 
English subjunctive, and the hypothetic by a form with may; 
otherwise, the translation is better effected by means of a 





42 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§21 


form with may preceded by an indefinite word or phrase, 
such as whoever , whenever , etc., according- to circumstances. 
This use of the subjunctive is illustrated by the following 


examples: 

sea como fuere 
sucecla lo que sucediere 

Uegue quien llegare 

venga de donde viniere 

sea cual fuere su resolucidn 


be it as it may 

happen what may (or, whatever 
may happen) 

whoever may arrive (or, no mat¬ 
ter who arrives) 

wherever he may come from (or, 
no matter where he may come 
from) 

whatever be his resolution 


91. In Alternative Expressions. — In this form of 
construction, the subjunctive is generally, though not always, 
preceded by que; the equivalent English verb, by whether. 


Tendremos que partir rnahana, 
que queramos 6 no (or, que 
queramos 6 que no que¬ 
ramos) . 

Ven a verme esta noche, que 
llueva 6 que truene. 

Que esta teoria sea verdadera 6 
falsa, su autor es digno de 
admiracion. 

Continue enviandole el periodieo 
a don Alfonso, que pague 6 
que no. 

Nos dijo que al dia siguiente, 
hubiesen 6 no escrito los abo- 
gados, firmasemos la escritura 
como estaba. 

La sernana entrante, hayamos 6 
no recibido contestacion a nues- 
tro cablegrama, saldremos para 
Liverpool. 


We shall have to leave tomorrow, 
whether we wish to or not. 


Come to see me this evening, 
whether it rains or thunders. 

Whether this theory be true or 
false, its author is worthy of 
admiration. 

Continue to send the newspaper 
to Mr. Alphonso, whether he 
pays or not. 

He told us to sign the deed, as 
it was, on the following day, 
whether the lawyers had written 
or not. 

Next week, whether or not we 
have received an answer to our 
cablegram, we will leave for 
Liverpool. 


92. Witli Que, to Qualify a Preceding Statement. 

In this form of construction, que is often equivalent to 
so far as; and, even if it cannot be rendered by this phrase, 
it has a qualifying meaning similar to it. 





§21 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


43 


Este hombre no estaba en el 
cuarto, que yo sepa. 

El acusado no dijo tal cosa, que 
yo recuerde. 

No hubo entre los dos palabras 
desagradables, que yo oyera. 


This man was not in the room, so 
far as I know. 

The defendant did not say such a 
thing, so far as I remember. 

There were no disagreeable words 
between the two, so far as I 
could hear. 


93. In Certain Emphatic Affirmative Sentences 
Having a Conditional Form. —The following examples 
will indicate the class of sentences here referred to. As 
will be observed, the Spanish subjunctive is rendered by 
may or let. The que preceding the subjunctive form is 
sometimes omitted. 


Que me maten si no digo lal 
verdad. > 

Matenme si no digo la verdad. J 
Que pase yo por villano, si no 
hago lo que ahora prometo. 

Que nos ahorquen, si no obte- 
nemos el triunfo. 

Sea yo el objeto de tu odio y tu 
desprecio, si te he mentido. 


May I be killed if I do not tell the 
truth. 

May I pass for a villain, if I do 
not do what I now promise. 

May we be hanged (or, Let them 
hang us), if we do not obtain the 
victory. 

May I be the object of thy hate 
and contempt, if I have lied to 
thee. 


94. Rendering of the English Imperative of the 
First Person Singular. —There is no special form corre¬ 
sponding to the English imperative let vie. When this expres¬ 
sion is addressed to a second person, let properly means 
allow , and may be rendered by such verbs as permitlr 
or dejar followed by either an infinitive or a subjunctive 
form. 


Hejeme pasar. 

Permitame que vea (or, I)e- 
jeme ver) su reloj. 
Permiteme que te de un con- 
sejo. 


Let me pass. 

Let me see your watch. 

Let me (or, Allow me to) give you 
a piece of advice. 


When the speaker addresses himself, he may, by a sort of 
fictitious pluralization, use the first person plural of the 





44 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


21 


imperative, while otherwise regarding himself as a second 
person, represented by a second-person pronoun. 

Veamos , Sancho, lo que piensas Let me see, Sancho, what thou 
hacer con esa tu insula. intendest to do with that island 

of thine. 


GENERAL REMARKS ON THE USE OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE 

95. In the foregoing articles have been given the most 
common uses of the subjunctive; others will be given in 
connection with the meanings of the tenses. It is impossible 
to formulate in a general rule, or even in a few clear and 
comprehensive rules, the great variety' of constructions 
requiring the employment of that mode. The student may, 
however, be guided by the principle that, in general, sub¬ 
junctive forms are dependent on indicative forms expressed 
or understood, and represent the meaning of the verb as 
doubtful, uncertain, or contingent. This is why they apply 
mainly to future events, or events that are represented as 
likely to take place after the time indicated by the governing 
verb. 

Many of the words and phrases that, according to the pre¬ 
ceding rules and illustrations, govern —that is, require —the 
subjunctive, cease to do so when the predicate in the depend¬ 
ent proposition is not exhibited as a possibility, but as an 
actuality. This aspect of the subject has been already 
referred to, and is further illustrated by the following pairs 
of examples: 


( Mientras el duerme, yo trabajo. 
Mientras el duerma, yo trabajare. 
(See Art. 83.) 

Cuanto mas insultas, tanto mas 
te desprecian. 

• Cuanto m&s insultes, tanto mas 
te despreciar&n. (See Art. 
89.) 


While he sleeps, I work. 

While he sleeps (that is, may 
sleep), I shall work. 

The more thou insultest, the 
more they despise thee. 

The more thou mayest insult, 
the more they will despise 
thee. 


The indicative form duerme implies that the person referred 
to is actually sleeping; the predicate of the dependent propo¬ 
sition is here presented as an actuality. The form duerma , 







21 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


45 


on the contrary, presents the predicate as something uncer¬ 
tain and indefinite; indeed, it does not exclude the possibility 
that the person referred to may not at all realize the mean¬ 
ing of the verb —that he may not sleep. Similar remarks 
apply to the forms insultas and insultes. 


THE HYPOTHETIC MODE 

96. Form of This Mode. — As will be observed by refer¬ 
ring to the conjugation tables in Part 2, the hypothetic may 
be obtained from the preterit subjunctive form in -ra by 
changing the second a of the terminations -ara, -aras, 
-dramos, - arais , - aran , and that in the terminations -iera, 
-ieras, -iiramos, - ierais , ieran , into e. 


Preterit Subjunctive 
hablara, hablaramos 
vendiera, vendieramos 
permitiera, permitieramos 


Hypothetic 
hablare, habl&remos 
vendiere, vendieremos 
permitiere, permitieremos 


This rule applies to irregular as well as to regular verbs. 

97. Uses of the Hypothetic.—The hypothetic mode 
is used: 

1. In propositions of doubtful predicate introduced by 
si, if. 

Si alguien preguntare por mi, 
diga que pronto volvere. 

Si, cuando ella llegue, no hu- 
biere recibido usted mi 
carta, pdngame un cablegrama. 

Si sus g6neros fueren tan bue- 
nos como usted dice, puede 
usted estar seguro de que le 
haremos un gran pedido. 

In all sentences of this form, the hypothetic may be 
replaced by the indicative simple or compound present, as 
the case may be. 

Si alguien pregunta por mi, diga que pronto volver6. 

Si, cuando ella llegue, no ha recibido usted mi carta, pongame 
un cablegrama. 


Should any one ask for me, say I 
shall soon return. 

If, when she arrives, you have not 
received my letter, send me a 
cablegram. 

If your goods are as good as you 
say, you may be sure that we 
shall give you a large order. 




46 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§21 


2. In propositions introduced by cuando, when , and 
relating to future events. 


Cuando los Estados Unidos em- 
prendieren guerras de con- 
quista, la republica empezara a 
decaer. 

Cuando te hirieren, calla, y 
sufre tu suerte con paciencia. 

Cuando el tiempo liubiere ex- 
pirado, la propiedad volvera 
al gobierno. 

Cuando el hombre liubiere de- 
jado de eorrer tras el lujo y 
los placeres frlvolos, habra paz 
universal. 


When the United States should 
undertake wars of conquest, the 
republic will begin to decline. 

When they should strike thee, 
keep silent, and bear thy lot 
with patience. 

When the time shall have expired, 
the property shall revert to the 
government. 

When man shall have ceased to 
run after luxury and frivolous 
pleasures, there will be univer¬ 
sal peace. 


In all sentences of this form, the hypothetic may be 
replaced by the simple or the compound present subjunc¬ 
tive, as the case may be. 


Cuando los Estados Unidos emprendan guerras de conquista, la 
republica empezara a decaer. 

Cuando el hombre liaya dejado de eorrer tras el lujo y los placeres 
frivolos, habra paz universal. 

3. In dependent propositions that are introduced by 
mientras, while , or by a relative pronoun or adverb, and 
relate to a future contingency, the verb in the principal prop¬ 
osition being in the indicative future. 


Mientras vivieremos, comba- 
tiremos por la libertad. 

Lo aprehenderemos donde lo en- 
contraremos. 

No se permitira queentren al pais 
los que no tuvieren pasa- 
porte. 

Los que desearen separarse de 
la compania, recibir&n lo que 

bubieren pagado. 


As long as we live, we will fight 
for liberty. 

We will arrest him wherever we 
may find him. 

Those who shall have no passport, 
shall not be permitted to enter 
the country. 

Those who may desire to separate 
themselves from the company, 
will receive whatever they shall 
have paid. 




21 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


47 


Here, as in the preceding case, and as has been explained 
in previous articles, the hypothetic may be replaced by the 
subjunctive. 

4. In phrases indicating indifference to or disregard of 
certain possibilities, as illustrated in Art. 90. In this form 
of construction also, the subjunctive may take the place of 
the hypothetic. 

98. General Remark on the Use of the Hypothetic. 
This mode is today almost exclusively restricted to formal 
style. In familiar style, the forms of the indicative and of 
the subjunctive mentioned in the last article are employed in 
its place, except in the constructions included under 4, and 
in a few idiomatic expiessions, in which, although the sub¬ 
junctive is permissible, the hypothetic is generally preferred. 











SPANISH GRAMMAR 

(PART 7) 


THE VERB— (Continued) 


PRONOMINAL OR REFLEXIVE VERBS 


DEFINITIONS 

1. The reflexive construction and the reflexive use of 
the oblique cases of the personal pronouns were fully 
treated in Part 4. The sentence, fcl se habla, means He 
talks to himself , and hablarse means- to talk to oneself. So, 
too, Nosotros nos hablamos, may mean either, We talk to 
each other , or, We talk to ourselves. In these constructions, 
the pronominal case accompanying the verb is the substi¬ 
tute and equivalent of a dative prepositional phrase; it does 
not properly form part of the verb, but serves to comple¬ 
ment its meaning. 

Some verbs are always accompanied by a pronominal 
oblique case having the form such cases have in reflexive 
dative or accusative constructions, but not being equivalent 
to either a dative prepositional phrase or an accusative 
substantive. The pronominal case is then really a part of 
the verb, having no meaning by itself; and the sentence, 
although reflexive in form, is not so in sense. These verbs 
are called pronominal, or reflexive; all others, non- 
pronominal, or non-reflexive. As the term reflexive , 
being employed for other purposes, might give rise to 
ambiguity, the term pronominal will hereafter be applied 

For notice of copyright, see page immediately following the title page 
§22 





2 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


22 


to the class of verbs under consideration. The following 
are examples of verbs belonging to this class: 


atreverse, to dare I sentarse, to sit down 
quejarse, to complain | abstenerse, to abstain 


CONJUGATION OF PRONOMINAL VERBS 


2 . Although the case se is always affixed to, and forms 
part of, the infinitive of every pronominal verb, the verb is 
considered to belong to the conjugation characterized by the 
ending of the part preceding that case, and is conjugated 
accordingly. Thus, atreverse (alrever-se) is classed with 
verbs ending in -er and belonging, therefore, to the second 
conjugation. The inflections of this verb are formed accord¬ 
ing to the rules governing the conjugation of verbs ending 
in -er, but every form should be accompanied by the reflexive 
dative cafee corresponding to the grammatical person of the 
subject to which that form refers: se for the third person, both 
numbers; me for the first person singular; te for the second 
person singular; nos for the first person plural; os for the 
second person plural. * The rules for the position of these 
cases, when used as parts of pronominal verbs, are the same 
as those for their position when used reflexively. It will be 
remembered that usted is constructed with the third person 
of the verb, and requires therefore the pronominal cases of 
the third person. 

As an illustration of the rules just stated, some forms of 
alegrarse, to rejoice, to be glad, are here given: 


Indicative Present 


yo me alegro 
tti te alegras 
H (usted ) se alegra 
nosotros nos alegramos 
vosotros os alegrais 
ellos (ustedes ) se alegran 


I am glad 

thou art glad 

he is (you are) glad 

we are glad 

ye are glad 

they (you) are glad 


Compound Postpreterit 


yo me habria alegrado 
tu te habrias alegrado 
el {usted) se habria alegrado 


I should have been glad 
thou wouldst have been glad 
he (you) would have been glad 






§22 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


3 


nosotros nos habriamos alegrado 
vosotros os habriais alegrado 
ellos (ustedes ) se habrian ale¬ 
grado 


we should have been glad 

ye would have been glad 

they (you) would have been glad 


Imperative 

alegremonos; alegraos | let us be glad; be ye glad 


As will be noticed, the first person plural of the impera¬ 
tive loses the final -s characteristic of that form (hablemos ), 
before adding the ending -nos, and the second person loses 
the final -d {hablad) before taking the ending -os. The first 
of these two changes is very common, but not strictly neces¬ 
sary, alegremostios being as proper as alegremonos; the 
second is required in all cases, except with the verb irse, 
to go away , to leave , which has the imperative idos. These 
changes apply whether the cases nos , os are parts of pronom¬ 
inal verbs, or are used reflexively with the imperatives of 
other verbs. 


ayudemonos; ayudaos I let us help one another; help ye 

one another 


REMARKS ON PRONOMINAL VERBS 

3. Transitive Verbs Used Pronominally. — In Eng¬ 
lish, many verbs can be employed both transitively and 
intransitively. Not so in Spanish. Thus, to open may be 
either transitive or intransitive, but the Spanish abrir can 
belong to the former class only. There are, however, transi¬ 
tive verbs that can be made intransitive by making them 
pronominal. The pronominal form of such verbs can gen¬ 
erally be rendered by the English equivalent, used intransi¬ 
tively, of the corresponding Spanish transitive form, or by 
to be or to become followed by the participle of that equivalent. 


Transitive 

abrir, to open; asustar, to frighten; irritar, to exasperate 


El criado abrio la puerta. 

El trueno asustd & mi sehora. 
Eso nos ha irritado mucho. 


The servant opened the door. 

The thunder frightened my wife. 
That has exasperated us very 
much. 





4 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


22 


Pronominal and Intransitive 

abrirse, to open; asustarse, to be or become frightened; irri 
tarse, to be or become exasperated 


La puerta se abrio en aquel mo- 
mento. 

Nosotros nos asustamos mucho 
cuando vimos las llamas. 

Yo tengo mal caracter, y me 
irrito facilmente. 


The door opened at that moment. 

We became very much frightened 
when we saw the flames. 

I have a bad temper, and am 
easily exasperated. 


The following are additional examples of this trans¬ 
formation: 

mejorar, to improve , to make better 


Ultimamente hemos mejorado mu¬ 
cho nuestro proceso. 

Esperamos que ustedes se me- 
joren pronto. 


We have lately improved our 
process a great deal. 

We hope you will soon be better. 


casar, to marry (unite in marriage ) 


El padre Uribe caso a mi hija. 


Yo me case hace cuarenta aiios. 


Father Uribe married my daugh¬ 
ter (that is, My daughter was 
married by Father Uribe). 

I married forty years ago. 


cansar, to tire 


El sermon estuvo demasiado lar¬ 
go, y nos canso mucho. 
Nosotros 110 s cansarnos de todo. 


The sermon was too long, and it 
tired us very much. 

We tire of everything. 


reducir. to reduce, to diminish 


/ 

Ultimamente hemos reducido mu¬ 
cho nuestras relaciones comer- 
ciales. 

Nuestras relaciones comerciales se 
han reducido mucho. 


We have lately reduced our com¬ 
mercial relations a great deal. 

Our commercial relations have 
been very much reduced. 


4. There are verbs in which the case of the pronoun 
may be regarded either as a mere part of the verb, or as 
its accusative; they may therefore be classed either as 
pronominal or as transitive verbs. Thus, vestirse may be 
rendered by either the intransitive verb to dress , or by the 
phrase to dress oneself. Similarly with lavarse, to wash , and 
banarse, to bathe. 







§22 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


5 


Cuando usted llego, estdbamos 
vistiendonos. 

Voy a lavarme ahora mismo. 

iLe gusta 4 usted baharse en el 
mar? 


When you arrived, we were dress¬ 
ing (ourselves). 

I am just now going to wash 
(myself). 

Do you like to bathe in the sea? 


5. There are other transitive verbs that generally take 
a dative case, but are not pronominal, properly speaking, 
as the dativa case really performs its usual functions, being 
employed reflexively. Such are apropiarse, to appropriate 
to oneself; procurarse, to procure for oneself; ponerse, to 
put on (wearing apparel ), and many others. 


Nos apropiamos cuanto encontra- 
mos. 

Pongase el sobretodo. 

El pugilista se quito el saco y se 
puso los guantes. 


We appropriated to our.seIves 
everything we found. 

Put on your overcoat. 

The pugilist removed his coat and 
put on his gloves. 


6. As stated in Part 4, the dative case is added to some 
transitive verbs to indicate eagerness, thoroughness, etc. 
Thus, beber means to drmk in general, and bebersv means to 
drink the whole of; fumar means to smoke in general, and 
fumarse, to smoke the whole of; leer means to read , and leerse, 
to read the whole of with eagerness. The pronominal form of 
verbs of this kind is applied when the accusative of the verb 
is quantitatively determined, and often, as in leerse , implies 
interest, effort, or the like. 


I Yo nunca bebo vino. 

Me he bebido dos botellas de 
champana. 

^No fuma usted, senor Rojas? 
Fume se este cigarro habano. 
<No han leido ustedes el “Gil 
Bias?’’ —Si,senor, nos lo lemtos 
en un dia. 


I never drink wine. 

I have drunk two whole bottles 
of champagne. 

Do you not smoke, Mr. Rojas? 
Smoke this Havana cigar. 

Have you not read “Gil Bias?’’ 
— Yes, sir, we read the whole of 
it in one day. 


7. Finally, many transitive verbs undergo a radical 
change of meaning when made pronominal. The two 
meanings must be independently learned. The following 
may serve as examples: 





6 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


22 


acostar, to put to bed: acostarse, to go to bed , to lie down 
levantar, to raise: levantarse, to rise 

sentar, to lay down: sentarse, to sit down 

hallar, to find: hallarse, to be 

Literally, the forms hallarse and encontrarse mean to find, 
oneself , and verse, to see oneself; but the pronominal case 
seems to have lost its primary signification, and these three 
verbs are employed merely to indicate a state or condition, 
and are equivalent to estar, to be. 


Me hallo en una gran dificultad. 

(Como se encuentra su senora es- 
posa hoy? 

Nos vemos obligados 4 devolver 
los panuelos que usted nos 
envio, piles no son de la clase 
que pedimos. 


I am in a great difficulty. 

How is your wife today? 

We are compelled to return the 
handkerchiefs you sent us, for 
they are not the kind we or¬ 
dered . 


8. Intransitive Verbs Made Pronominal. — Many 
intransitive verbs are used pronominally. The addition of 
the pronominal case may not substantially alter the meaning 
of the verb; it may change that meaning but slightly, or it 
may form practically a different verb. Thus, estar means to be , 
and estarse , to remain; ir means to go , and z'rse, to go away , 
to leave. This subject cannot be reduced to any fixed rules, 
and belongs rather to lexicography than to grammar: all 
dictionaries give the meanings of the pronominal in con¬ 
junction with those of the non-pronominal forms of verbs 
that admit both forms. Here, howhver, the verbs dormir , 
morir , and refr will receive some attention, on account of 
their frequent occurrence. 

Dormir means to sleep, while dormirse means to go to sleep , 
to fallgisleep. 


Anoche no dormi nada. 

Me acoste a las diez, pero no pude 
dormirxixe antes de las doce. 


I did not sleep at all last night. 

I went to bed at ten, but could 
not go to sleep before twelve. 


9. Morir and morirse both mean to die , but the former is 
a much more dignified term, better adapted to elevated style 
and to respectful language. Another difference is that 
morirse applies only to living things. 




§22 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


7 


El hombre, como los otros ani- 
males, nace, vive, y muere. 

^De que murid su senora madre? 
“Mi amor,’’ dijo el joven enamo- 
rado, “no morira sino en la 
tumba.” 

^De que se murid ese viejo? 

The pronominal form morin 
of to be on the point of death , 
sions like the following: 

Nos estamos muriendo de hara- 
bre. 

Dijo que se estaba muriendo de 
calor. 


Man, like other animals, is born, 
lives, and dies. 

What did your mother die of? 

“My love,’’ said the enamored 
young man, “will die only in 
the grave.’’ 

What did that old man die of? 

’ is also employed in the sense 
especially in familiar expres- 

We are dying with hunger. 

He said he was dying with the 
heat. 


10. In the sense of to laugh in general, retr and refrse 
are equally proper, although the former is better adapted to • 
serious style. Reirse de means to laugh at. 


En las vicisitudes de la vida, el 
que hoy rie manana llora. 

Nos re into s casi hasta reven- 
tarnos. 

“Medio mundo se rie 
del otro medio, 
y yo me rio 

del mundo entero.” 


In the vicissitudes of life, he who 
laughs today weeps tomorrow. 
We laughed until we almost burst. 

“Half the world laughs 
At the other half, 

And I laugh 

At the whole world.’’ 


11 . With some intransitive verbs, the pronominal form 
indicates effort or obstinacy, or voluntary or purposive 
action. Thus, salir is simply to go ozit, while salirse is 
to go out overcoming some obstacle or disregarding some 


prohibition; it may sometimes 

(iPiensa usted salir esta noche? 

■ El reo, despues de tratar de 
salirse por la puerta de atras, 
se salio por una ventana. 

El centinela nos dijo que no entrd- 
semos, pero nosotros le quita- 
mos el rifle y nos entramos. 


be rendered by to get out. 

Do you intend to go out to¬ 
night? 

• The culprit, after trying to escape 
through the back door, escaped 
through a window. 

The sentinel told us not to go in, 
but we took his rifle away from 
him and forced our way in. 








8 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


22 


12. The Participle of Pronominal Verbs.— When 
the participle of a pronominal verb performs the functions 
of an adjective, that is, when it is not combined with haber 
in compound tenses, it is not accompanied by the pronom¬ 
inal case. 

I Nunca me habta cansado tanto. 

\Nunca habia estado tan cansado. 

El doctor aun no se ha levan- 
tado. 

iEsta el doctor levantado? 

,-Porque no se ha puesto usted 
los guantes? 

<;Tiene usted los guantes pues- 
tos? 


\ I had never tired so. 

I had never been so tired. 

The doctor has not yet risen. 

Is the doctor up {or, risen)? 
'Why have you not put on your 
gloves? 

Have you your gloves on {liter¬ 
ally, put on) ? 


13. Pronominal Verbs Requiring a Dative Case. 
A few pronominal verbs are employed with a third-person 
subject only —usually a neuter pronoun or a proposition 
introduced by que,— and require a dative case to complement 
their meaning. Among them maybe mentioned ocurrirse, 
to occur, and figurarse, to imagine. The dative case should 
follow the case se that makes the verb pronominal, and may 
be used redundantly with a dative prepositional phrase. 


Eso se me ocurrio ayer. 

Se me ha ocurrido una idea muy 
buena. 

Se le ocurrio que seria mejor 
criar ovejas que ganado vacuno. 

A nosotros se nos figuraba 
que la ingenieria de minas era 
cosa muy sencilla. 

Ocurrirse may be used as ; 

change of meaning. 

Eso me ocurrio ayer. 

Me ha ocurrido una idea muy b 


That occurred to me yesterday. 

A very good idea has occurred to 
me. 

It occurred to him that it would 
be better to rear sheep than 
(bovine) cattle. 

We imagined that mining engi¬ 
neering was a very simple thing. 

non-pronominal verb, without 


Figurarse , on the contrary, may be employed pronominally 
without the dative case; the person that was represented by 
this case is now represented by the subject of the verb, and 





§22 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


9 


what before was the subject becomes the accusative. The 
last of the sentences translated above, whose subject is the 
proposition introduced by que , may be replaced by the fol¬ 
lowing, in which the same proposition is the accusative of 
the verb: 

Nosotros nos figurdbamos que la ingenieria de minas era cosa muy 
sencilla. 


14. The verb olvidar, to forget , may be used, without 
change of meaning: 

1. As a non-pronominal transitive verb. 


Olvide mi pasaporte. 

Habiamos olvidado que la comi¬ 
sion debia reunirseaquella tarde. 


I forgot my passport. 

We had forgotten that the commis¬ 
sion must (was to) meet that 
evening. 


2. As a pronominal verb without a dative case. In this 
construction, the verb is followed by de. 

Me olvide de mi pasaporte. 

Nos habiamos olvidado de que la comision debia reunirse aquella 
tarde. 

3. As a pronominal verb with the dative case. The con¬ 
struction is similar to that of ocurrirse. 


Se me olvido mi pasaporte. 

.Se lios habia olvidado que la comision debia reunirse aquella tarde. 


THE PASSIVE AND THE QUASI-REFEEXIVE 
CONSTRUCTION 


THE PASSIVE CONSTRUCTION 

15. Definitions. —When a transitive verb and its accu¬ 
sative enter a sentence, the verb is said to be in the active 
voice, or active form; and, with reference to the verb, the 
form of the sentence is called the active construction. 

Cervantes escribio el “Don Qui- 
jote.” 


Cervantes wrote “Don Quixote.’’ 






10 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§22 


This sentence may be changed in such a manner as to 
convert its accusative into subject, and its subject into the 
object of the preposition por, by , by substituting for the 
preterit escribio the same tense of the verb ser, to be , com¬ 
bined with the participle escrito. 

El “Don Quijote” fue escrito “Don Quixote’’ was written by 
por Cervantes . Cervantes. 


With respect to the verb escribir , the form of the last sen¬ 
tence is called the passive construction, and the form 
fue escrito , obtained by combining the verb ser with the 
participle of the verb, is called the passive voice, or the 
passive form, of the verb. 

The terms just explained apply to other transitive verbs 
in which a similar transformation is permissible. In the 
passive voice, the participle of the verb is syntactically 
treated like an ordinary adjective, and should therefore 
agree with the subject in number and gender. 


Active Construction 


Col6n descubrio la America. 

La guerra causa muchos males. 
'Creo que la compania ha recoils- 
truido el muelle. 


Columbus discovered America. 
War causes many evils. 

I think the company has recon¬ 
structed the wharf. 


Passive Construction 


La America fue descubierta 
por Colon. 

Muchos males sou causados 
por la guerra. 

Creo que el muelle lia sido 
reconstruido por la com- 
pahia. 


America was discovered by Co¬ 
lumbus. 

Many evils are caused by war. 

I think the wharf has been recon¬ 
structed by the company. 


16 . Use of the Preposition De in the Passive Con¬ 
struction. —With some transitive verbs, especially those 
denoting feeling or emotion rather than action, de may take 
the place of por in the passive construction. 


Este hombre extraordinario es 
amado aun de sus enemigos. 
Cumple con tu deber, y seras res- 
petado de tus semejantes. 


This extraordinary man is loved 
even by his enemies. 

Do thy duty, and thou shalt be 
respected by thy fellow beings. 






§22 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


11 


Although the rule that verbs of emotion should take the 
preposition de is quite general, it is not absolute. Thus, in 
the following examples, por is as proper as de: 

Es temido poi* sus enemigos. He is feared by his enemies. 

El tirano era despreciado por The tyrant was despised by all. 
todos. 


It is often difficult to decide whether a verb denotes 
emotion or true action. The student is advised to use por in 
all cases of doubt. 


17. Passive Voice With Dative Case.—By its very 
nature, the passive voice excludes an accusative, since the 
only substantive that could be the accusative of the verb is 
converted into its subject. The dative and the dative case, 
however, are not excluded by the passive form of the verb. 


La noticia le fue comunicada por 
un amigo. 

Los dem&s pormenores os seran 
explicados por el portador. 

El poema le sera dedicado por el 
autor al presidente de la 
Academia. 


The news was communicated to 
him by a friend. 

The other particulars will be ex¬ 
plained to you by the bearer. 

The poem will be dedicated by 
the author to the president of 
the Academy. 


18. Passive Construction With No Equivalent 
Active Construction. —In all the foregoing examples of 
passive construction, the agent of the verb, which in the 
active construction is the subject of the sentence, is denoted 
by the object of the preposition por or de following the 
participle. In all such cases, the passive construction may 
be readily transformed into the active. Thus, the last 
example in Art. 17 may be changed in this manner: 

El autor le dedicard el poema al I The author will dedicate the poem 
presidente de la Academia. | to the president of the Academy. 

When, however, the agent, not being specified, is left 
indeterminate, the transformation of the construction from 
passive to active cannot be effected in the regular manner. 
In none of the following examples of passive construction is 
there a substantive that could perform the function of subject 
in an equivalent active sentence: 




12 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


La noticia le fue comunicada ayer. 

La America fue descubierta en 
1492. 

Fuimos vergonzosisimamente en- 
ganados. 


The news was communicated to 
him yesterday. 

America was discovered in 1492. 
We were most shamefully deceived. 


In some cases, the transformation can be effected by intro¬ 
ducing an indeterminate pronoun, such as alguien, some one; 
but this is only permissible when the agent is really unknown, 
or its identity is of no importance. 

Alguien le comunico la noticia Some one communicated the news 
ayer. to him yesterday. 

19. Estar Followed by a Participle. —The passive 
voice is always formed with ser, never with estar. A participle 
following the latter verb is merely an adjective expressing a 
condition of the subject, regardless of any agent; while in 
the passive voice, there is always an agent expressed or 
understood. The following pairs of examples will serve to 
illustrate this difference; in the second example of each pair, 
the construction is passive; in the first, it is not: 


( Este libro esta muy bien escrito. 
Este libro fue escrito en el siglo 
pasado. 

La pinita esta asustada. 

La ninita ha sido asustada por 
unos muchachos traviesos. 

El capitolio estaba terminado 
cuando yo estuve alll. 

El capitolio sera terminado por 
un arquitecto italiano. 


( This book is very well written. 
This book was written in the last 
century. 

The little girl is frightened. 

The little girl has been frightened 
by some mischievous boys. 
'The capitol was (already) fin¬ 
ished when I was there. 

The capitol will be finished by 
. an Italian architect. 


THE QUASI-REFLEXIVE CONSTRUCTION 

20. Definitions. —The student is already familiar with 
the reflexive accusative construction of the third person, in 
which the accusative case se represents the same thing as the 
subject of the verb. 


Ese hombre se alaba demasiado. 


That man praises himself too 
much. 









§22 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


13 


Here the subject of the verb denotes the agent or per¬ 
former of the action, and the accusative se represents the 
same agent as being acted upon by himself. 

We come now to a class of constructions similar in form to 
that just considered, but entirely different in meaning. 

Eso se comprende facilmente. I That is easily understood. 

Aqui se viaja con comodidad. | Here one travels with comfort. 

It might seem that in the first of these two examples, se 
represents eso and is the accusative of comprende . This, 
however, is not really so, for se can only be a reflexive accu¬ 
sative, and this requires that the thing denoted by the subject 
should perform on itself the action denoted by the verb; 
and, in the present case, this is obviously impossible. The 
se affixed to comprende is simply a sign of indetermination, 
employed when the agent —the person or persons that under¬ 
stand—is not specified. Similarly, in the second example, 
se viaja means one travels, or people travel, or men travel. 

This form of construction, in which se is indefinitely 
employed with a verb, the action or condition denoted by 
the verb not being attributed to any specified person, is 
called a quasi-reflexive construction (Spanish, construc- 
ci6n cuasi-refleja ).* The combination of the verb and the 
indefinite se entering these constructions is called the quasi¬ 
reflexive form of the verb. For convenience, this se will 
here be called the quasi-reflexive se. 

It should be understood that, although the quasi-reflexive 
form of a verb is often rendered by introducing such pro¬ 
nouns as one, they, or such nouns as people, men, this by no 
means implies that se is a substantive: it is simply a mark 
of indetermination —a kind of particle attached to the verb 
but having no meaning by itself. With respect to its position 
in the sentence, however, it is treated exactly like the true 
reflexive case se. 

21. Rendering of Quasi - Reflexive Forms.— A 
quasi-reflexive form can always be literally rendered by 


* The word quasi means apparently, in form only. 



14 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§22 


giving to the English equivalent of the Spanish verb an 
indefinite subject, such as one, they, people. Although this 
translation may not always be the most appropriate, it may 
serve as a guide in finding one that will be better adapted 
to English usage. Thus, Se envio por un medico, may be ren¬ 
dered, They sent for a physician, and this literal translation 
leads to the more usual form, A physician was sent for. 
Likewise, se dice may be rendered by people say, they say, or, 
in more common language, it is said. 

This general principle is sufficient to enable the student to 
properly translate any quasi-reflexive form. It is, however, 
important that he should acquire the habit of giving his 
translation the most appropriate English form without 
having to resort first to a literal translation. Careful study 
of the following special cases will greatly aid him in accom¬ 
plishing this end: 

1. When the verb in the quasi-reflexive construction has 
a subject, the quasi-reflexive form is rendered by the Eng¬ 
lish passive voice. 


La proposition se aprobd unanime- 
mente. 

En algunos paises de Sud-Ame- 
rica, la llama se emplea como 
bestia de carga. 

Todos los preparativos se termi- 
naron en dos dias. 

Cuanto se ha hecho y cuanto se 
haga por la salud del enfermo 
serd inutil. 

El trances se habla muy general- 
mente en todos los paises de 
Europa. 

Esta obra de arte es muy digna 
de admirarse. 

Tbmese este remedio segun nues- 
tras direcciones. 


The proposition was unanimously 
approved. 

In some.countries of South Amer¬ 
ica, the llama is employed as a 
beast of burden. 

All the preparations were finished 
in two days. 

All that has been done, and all 
that may be done, for the health 
of the patient will be useless. 

French is very extensively spoken 
in all the countries of Europe. 

This work of art is very worthy of 
being admired. 

Let this remedy be taken accord¬ 
ing to our directions. 


Except in the imperative (last example), the passive con¬ 
struction is equally proper in Spanish, although not so com¬ 
monly employed as in English. 



22 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


15 


La proposicion fue aprobada unanimemente. 

Todos los preparativos fueron terminados en dos dias. 
Esta obra de arte es muy digna de ser admiradci. 


(a) This rule applies to impersonal constructions, in 
which the subject of the Spanish verb is a proposition, an 
infinitive, or an infinitive phrase. In the equivalent English 
sentence, the grammatical subject is the indefinite pronoun 
it. This kind of construction has no passive equivalent in 


Spanish. 

Se cree que el bade no tendra 
lugar antes del quince. 

Se dice que la senorita Luisa can- 
tara esta noche en el concierto. 

Ayer se decia que este ano no 
habria suficiente trigo para su- 
plir las necesidades del pais; 
hoy se asegura que la cosecha 
sera abundantisima. 

No se sabe como principio el in- 
cendio. 

Se pe?isaba dar un banquete a los 
miembros de la embajada. 

Recuerdese que Cuba acaba de 
pasar por una situacion muy 
seria. 

Ttngase en cuenta que la Repu- 
blica Americana es aun muy 
joven. 


It is thought that the ball will not 
take place before the fifteenth. 

It is said that Miss Louise will 
sing this evening at the concert. 

It was said yesterday that this 
year there would not be enough 
wheat to supply the needs of 
the country; today, it is asserted 
that the crop will be most abun¬ 
dant. 

It is not known how the fire began. 

It was intended to give a banquet 
to the members of the embassy. 

Let it be remembered that Cuba 
has just passed through a very 
serious situation. 

Let it be considered ( more liter¬ 
ally, taken into account) that 
the American Republic is still 
very young. 


In imperative sentences, however, the second person of 
the imperative is often preferable in English to the imper¬ 
sonal form with let it be. 

Agreguese a esto que la cantatriz Add to this that the singer had a 
tenia un fuerte resfriado. very severe cold. 

(b) If the verb is accompanied by a dative case denoting 
a human being, the translation is effected according to the 
general rule, or, in some special cases, by giving to the Eng¬ 
lish verb a subject representing the person to which the 
Spanish dative case refers. 




16 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§22 


Se nos envio un telegrama! 

Se me dijo que usted estaba muy 
enfermo. 

Se les prohibit) entrar. 

Se nos negaron las concesiones 
que pedlmos. 


A telegram was sent to us. 

I was told {or, It was said to me) 
that you were very ill. 

They were forbidden to go in. 

We were denied the concessions 
we asked for {or, The conces¬ 
sions we asked for were denied 
to us). 


2. When the Spanish verb has no subject, or the subject 
is an interrogative pronoun, the translation must be effected 
by giving to the English verb an indefinite subject, such as 
one , they, people. The pronouns you and we, which often have 
an indefinite meaning, are sometimes used for rendering 
such expressions. There are cases in which the translation 
must be made very freely, in order to give it a usual English 
form. No definite rule can be given in this respect, except 
that the general principle stated at the beginning of this 
article should be applied as a guide. 


Se habla mucho de lo que esth 
sucediendo en Cuba, pero parece 
que se sabe muy poco de la ver- 
dadera condicion de la isla. 

Apenas con dificultad se podia 
entrar. 

Se bailo hasta el amanecer. 

^Que debe saberse para entrar a 
ese colegio? 

iQue quiere usted que se haga con 
estas mhquinas? 

^C6mo se sube k la cima de esa 
roca? 

Temo que se nos hay a engahado. 

En esos paises se bebe mucho y se 
trabaja muy poco. 

Se debe comer para vivir, y no 
vivir para comer. 

IA que hora se almuerza aqul? 


People talk a great deal of what is 
happening in Cuba, but it seems 
that very little is known of the 
true condition of the island. 

Only with difficulty could one go 
in. 

We danced {or, They danced) 
until dawn. 

What must one know to enter 
that college? 

What do you want us to do with 
these machines? 

How can {literally, does) one go 
up to the top of that rock? 

I fear they have deceived us {or, 
that we have been deceived). 

In those countries people drink a 
great deal and work very little. 

One should eat to live, and not 
live to eat. 

What time do they {or, do you) 
breakfast here? {or, What time 
do they have breakfast here?) 




§22 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


17 


The subjectless quasi-reflexive imperative is better ren¬ 
dered by the second person of the English imperative, used 
in a general or indefinite sense. 


Para otros pormenores, escrtbase 
k Toral & Cia. 

En caso de duda, acudase al 
superintendente. 


For other particulars, write to 
Toral & Co. 

In case of doubt, apply to the 
superintendent. 


3. When the verb has no subject and is accompanied by 
an accusative or a dative case, the corresponding nominative 
case is employed in English as subject of the passive voice 
of the verb. It should be observed that in all quasi-reflexive 
constructions le and les are used as accusatives instead of lo 
and los, respectively. 


Se les perdonara, si se manejan 
bien. 

Se ha dado poca importancia k la 
filosofia idealista, porque no se 
la ha estudiado a fondo, 6, si se 
la ha estudiado , no se la ha 
comprendido. 

Los monopolios son un grandi- 
simo obstdculo al progreso eco- 
nomico; donde se les permite , 
la industria se paraliza 6 retro¬ 
cede. 

Al general se le condeno a muerte, 
y a sus oficiales se les desterro. 


They shall be pardoned, if they 
behave well. 

Little importance has been given to 
idealistic philosophy, because it 
has not been thoroughly studied, 
or, if it has been studied, it has 
not been understood. 

Monopolies are a very great obsta¬ 
cle to economic progress; where 
they are permitted, industry be¬ 
comes paralyzed or retrogrades. 

The general was sentenced to 
death, and his officers were 
banished. 


4. When the quasi-reflexive form of the verb is modified 
by a prepositional phrase, the object of the preposition is 
often made the subject of the passive form of the verb in the 
English translation, the preposition being placed after the 
verb. There is no Spanish literal equivalent of this peculiar 
English construction. 


He esta preposicion se hace 
uso en construcciones como las 
siguientes. 

Se envio por un medico. 


This preposition is made use of in 
constructions like the following. 

A physician was sent for. 





18 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


22 


No se habta contado eon una 
resistencia tan obsti- 
nacla. 

Se habla muy bien de ese es- 

critor. 


So obstinate a resistance had not 
been reckoned with. 

That writer is very well spoken of. 


5. The quasi-reflexive construction is much used in adver¬ 
tisements and other public notices. The quasi-reflexive form 
of the verb, if it has a subject, is best rendered by the Eng¬ 
lish participle, or by the infinitive; if it has no subject, an 
indefinite subject, or the pronoun we, must be provided for 
the English sentence, in which the active form of the verb 
should be employed. This last mode of translating applies 
also in some cases in which the quasi-reflexive verb has a 
subject, as in the last of the examples that follow: 


Money loaned on chattels. 

French spoken here. 

Smoking not allowed. 

To let: a three-story house on 
Lealtad street. 

We do not trust today; tomorrow 
we do. 

We sell only for cash. 

We do not accept postage stamps 
{or, Postage stamps not ac¬ 
cepted) . 

22. Remarks on the Syntax of Quasi-Reflexive 
Constructions. —With transitive verbs, a substantive that 
in the active construction would be the accusative, becomes 
the subject of the verb in the quasi-reflexive construction, if 
it denotes an animal, an inanimate thing, or an indeterminate 
human being. The verb should therefore agree with that 
substantive in number. If the substantive denotes a deter¬ 
minate human being or class of human beings, it is the 
accusative of the verb in the quasi-reflexive as well as in the 
active construction; it should be preceded by the prep¬ 
osition d, and the verb should be in the singular number. 

Seexaminaron los proyectiles j The projectiles were very care- 
muy cuidadosamente. [ fully examined. 

(Subject, los proyectiles ) 


Se presta dinero sobre prendas. 
Aqui se habla frances. 

No se permite fumar. 

Se alquila una casa de tres pisos 
en la calle de la Lealtad. 

Hoy no se fta, rnanana si. 

No ^ vende sino al contado. 

No 5^ aceptan sellos de correo. 




§22 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


19 


Manana se traeranlosotvos mi- I The other ores will be brought to- 
nerales. | morrow. 

(Subject, los otros minerales) 

Se nombraron varios jefes. I Several commanders were ap- 

. I pointed. 

(Subject, varios —indeterminate persons) 

Se examino a los acusados. | The accused were examined. 
(Accusative, los acusados — determinate persons) 

Se guillotino k los conspira- I The conspirators were guillotined. 

dores. 

(Accusative, los conspiradores — determinate persons) 

Entonces se guillotinaban cons- I Conspirators were then guillotined 
piradoi*es sin piedad. | without mercy. 

(Subject, conspiradores — indeterminate persons) 


23. A predicate adjective may refer to the indefinite sub¬ 
ject implied in the quasi-reflexive form. Only the masculine 
singular form of the adjective can perform this function. 

Se vive feliz cuando se tiene la I One lives happy when one has a 
conciencia limpia. | clear conscience. 

Se nace ignorante. | Man is born ignorant. 

This construction, although not grammatically incorrect, is 
objectionable in several respects, and should be avoided as 
much as possible. A form similar to the English may be 
employed in its place. 

Uno vive feliz cuando tiene la conciencia limpia. 

El hombre nace ignorante. 


The verbs ser and estar should not be employed in the quasi¬ 
reflexive form. Expressions like the following, which are 
occasionally met with, are condemned by all grammarians: 


Se es feliz cuando se es vir¬ 
tuoso. 

No se esta de acuerdo acerca 
de los pormenores. 


One is happy when one is vir¬ 
tuous. 

People are not agreed about the 
particulars. 


In cases like these, the quasi-reflexive form should be 
replaced by the ordinary form of the verb, and an appro¬ 
priate subject introduced. 



20 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


22 


El hombre es feliz cuando es vir¬ 
tuoso. 

La gente no est& de acuerdo acerca 
de los pormenores. 


Man is happy when he is virtuous. 

People are not agreed about the 
particulars. 


• 24. Agent of Transitive Verb in Quasi-Reflexive 
Construction. —As in the passive construction, a transitive 
verb used in the quasi-reflexive form may be modified by a 
prepositional phrase consisting of the preposition por and 
the name of the agent that performs the action indicated by 
the verb. 


La proposicidn se rechazo por la 

mayoria. 

Se ha dicho por machos que la 
religion es un elemento indis¬ 
pensable de la moral. 

Estos libros se escribieron por 
autores anonimos, se co- 
piaron por copistas des- 
cuidados, y se tradujeron 
por traductores igno- 
rantes. 


The proposition was rejected by 
the majority. 

It has been said by many that 
religion is an indispensable ele¬ 
ment of morality. 

These books were written by 
anonymous authors, copied by 
careless copyists, and translated 
by ignorant translators. 


In most all cases of this kind, however, either the passive 
or the active construction is preferable, being both more 
elegant and more logical. 

La proposicidn fue rechazada por la mayoria. 

Muchos hart dicho que la religion es un elemento indispensable de 
la moral. 

Estos libros fueron escritos por autores anonimos, copiados por copis¬ 
tas descuidados, y traducidos por traductores ignorantes. 

25. Ambiguity in the Use of Quasi-Reflexive and 
Pronominal Forms. — It was explained in Art. 8 that some 
transitive verbs become intransitive by being used pro- 
nominally. Thus, quemar means to burn , and quemar se, to 
take fire. With these verbs, some ambiguity may arise 
when se is affixed to them, as it may not be clear whether 
this particle serves to make the verb pronominal or to make 
the construction quasi-reflexive. The following sentence 
may serve as an illustration: 




§22 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


21 


Poco antes de empezar la marcha 
hacia el interior del pais, se 
quemaron los buques. 


Shortly before beginning the 
march toward the interior of the 
country, the ships were burned 
(i or , the ships took fire —were 
destroyed by 'axe. —according to 
circumstances). 


A good writer would avoid this ambiguity by giving the 
sentence an entirely different form, unless the circumstances 
were such as to clearly indicate the meaning intended. 

The reflexive and the quasi-reflexive se may also be mis¬ 
taken for each other, especially as used by careless or 
ignorant writers or speakers. The sentence, El papa se con- 
sidera infalible , properly means The pope considers himseli 
hifallible; but the general rule laid down in Art. 22 is often 
disregarded, and the sentence is employed in the sense of, 
The pope is considered infallible. The proper rendering of 
this last sentence would be, Se considera al papa infalible; 
or, with a redundant dative case, Al papa se le considera 
infalible. 


26. Tlie Third Person Plural Used Instead of the 
Quasi-Reflexive Form.' —The quasi-reflexive form may in 
many cases be replaced by the third person plural of the 
verb. The construction is similar to the English con¬ 
struction with the indefinite they; but in Spanish the pronoun 
el los is neither expressed nor understood, the verb being con¬ 
sidered as having no subject whatever. 


Dicen que el congreso pasard una 
ley prohibiendo las corridas de 
toros. 

Han hecho un parque muy her- 
moso cerca del muelle. 

Hoy nos enviaron unas muestras 
de terciopelo muy fino, pero no 
sabemos quien las envio. 

En ese hotel cobran demasiado. 

que precio estan vendiendo 
ahora los boletos de ida y 
vuelta? 


They say that congress will pass 
a law forbidding bull fights. 

They have made a very beautiful 
park near the wharf. 

Some very fine velvet samples 
were sent to us today, but we do 
not know who sent them. 

They charge too much at that 
hotel. 

At what price are they now selling 
return tickets? 




22 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


22 


IRREGULAR VERBS 


ORTHOGRAPHIC CHANGES NOT CONSTITUTING 
IRREGULARITIES 

27. The conjugation of regular verbs was treated in 
Part 2. The endings there given represent sounds to be 
added to 'the sounds of the stems of all regular verbs; and, 
therefore, when one of those endings added to the unmodi¬ 
fied stem of the verb would alter the sound that stem has in 
the infinitive, an orthographic alteration is made in the stem 
in order to preserve its sound. These orthographic changes 
are not deemed irregularities. Thus, the present subjunctive 
of veneer, to vanquish , is written venia, ve?tias , venxamos , etc. 
Here the c of the infinitive is changed to z, as otherwise the 
sound of the stem of the verb would be altered, since the 
c in venca would have the £-sound, instead of the .e-sound it 
has in the infinitive. The present subjunctive of coger, to 
catch , is written coja, cojamos, etc., the g of the stem being 
replaced by /, as g before e or i has the same sound as /, but 
a different sound before a or o. Likewise, the first person 
singular of the indicative present is written cojo, not cogo. 
The first person singular of the preterit of tocar, to touch , 
is written tocyviS, not too.6, because in the latter form the 
£-sound that the c has in the infinitive would disappear. 
The first person singular of the indicative preterit of avert - 
guar, to inquire , is written averigixG^ not averigue, for in 
the latter form the u would be silent, and the sound of the 
stem of the verb would therefore be altered. The subjunc¬ 
tive of pagar, to pay , is written pagwe, pagwemos, etc., not 
page , pagemos , as in the latter form the g would have a 
/-sound. The first person singular of the indicative present 
of distlHguir, to distinguish, is written distingo , not dis- 
tingvio, for in the latter form the u would be pronounced, 
while in the infinitive it is silent. 

It is not customary to write z before e or i, and in verbs 
whose stem ends in z, this letter is changed to c before 



§22 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


23 


endings beginning with either of those vowels. Thus, the 
first person singular of the indicative preterit of empezar, 
to commence , is written empeci, not empez.6. 

The letter q is used only in the combinations que, qui, in 
which the u is silent and the q has the sound of k. Before 
a or o, the same sound is represented by c. For instance, 
the first person singular of delinquir, to be delinquent ) is 
written delinco, and not delinquo. 

Similar changes occur in the inflections of irregular verbs, 
but are not counted among the irregularities of such verbs. 
Thus, empezar, to begin , changes the sound of the stem to 
empiez- in certain tenses; but the form of this stem must be 
changed to empiec- when the first letter of the ending is e , as 
in the subjunctive present: yo empieee. Likewise, the sound 
of the stem in desplegar, to unfold , is in certain tenses 
changed to desplieg -, which requires the introduction of a u 
after the g when the ending begins with e } as in the subjunc¬ 
tive present: yo desplieg\ye. 


CLASSIFICATION OF IRREGULAR VERBS 

28. Classes of Irregular Verbs. — Nearly all irregular 
verbs can be included in one or another of several groups 
called classes. Each class is characterized by certain 
irregularities that are common to all the verbs included 
in it. A few isolated verbs are not susceptible of being 
grouped with others, each having irregularities peculiar 
to itself alone, and are for this reason called unclassified 
irregular verbs. 

Irregular verbs may be divided into classes in various 
manners, according to the basis on which the classification 
is founded. In this work, they are divided into eleven 
classes, the characteristics of which will be presently 
explained and illustrated. A list of the most important 
irregular verbs is given at the end of this part of the Course, 
each verb being followed by a reference to the article where 
the verb itself or another that may be taken as a model for its 
inflection is conjugated. 



24 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


22 


29. Irregular Participles. —In the classification of 
irregular verbs, the participle is not customarily taken into 
account. Thus, escribir, to write , is considered regular, 
although its participle is escrito instead of escribido. The 
verbs having irregular participles are comparatively few, 
and will be separately treated. 

30. Derivative Verbs.— Many verbs are formed from 
others by the prefixing of some particles —mainly of Latin 
origin. With respect to the verbs from which they are 
formed, they are called derivative verbs. For instance, 
dksatar, to untie , is a derivative of atar, to tie; tras^o- 
ner, to transpose , is a derivative of poner, to put; and 
contra<\.e>c\v, to contradict , is a derivative of decir, to say. 
With few exceptions, derivative verbs follow the irregulari¬ 
ties of their respective primitives. 

31. Imperative Forms.— As the imperative forms 
of the first person plural, and of the third person ( usted 
included) singular and plural, are the same as the corre¬ 
sponding forms of the subjunctive present, it will not be 
necessary to specify their irregularities. ' Furthermore, no 
verb is irregular in the second person plural of the impera¬ 
tive (the form with vosotros or vos) , and when the imperative 
of a verb is mentioned as irregular, the second person 
singular (the form with tu) is meant. It should also be 
remembered (see Part 2) that the negative imperative 
for all persons and numbers is the same as the present 
subjunctive. 

32. Verbs Ending in -llir, -ner, and -nir. — These 
verbs have a special irregularity that does not exclude others, 
and that must be overlooked in classing them with verbs 
whose irregularities are of a different character. This 
irregularity consists in that the i of endings beginning 
with ie or io is dropped before the ending is added to the 
stem of the verb. This occurs in the third persons of the 
indicative preterit, in all the subjunctive preterit, and in 
the hypothetic. 


22 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


25 


Rebullir, to stir 
Indicative Preterit 

el rebuild {not, -io) ellos rebulleron {not, -ieron) 


Subjunctive Preterit 
yo, el 

tu 


nosotros. 


Hypothetic 


vosotros 


ellos 


f rebullera {not, -leva) 
Irebullese {not, -iese) 

yo, el 

rebullere («c^,-iere) 

frebulleras {not, -iei*as) 

tu 

rebulleres {not, 

Irebulleses {not, -ieses) 


-iei*es) 

rebullei'amos {not, 
-ieramos) 
rebullesemos {not, 

nosotros 

rebulleremos {not, 

. -iesemos) 


-ieremos) 

rebullerais {not, 

-ierais) 
rebulleseis {not. 

vosotros 

rebullereis {not. 


-ieseis) 
rebulleran {not, 
-ieran) 
rebullesen {not, 
-lesen) 


ellos rebulleren {not, 
-ieren) 


Some writers extend this irregularity to verbs ending in 
-chir, as lienchir; to stuff. This practice, though common, 
has not yet been authorized by grammarians. 


CLASS I 

33. To this class belong: 

1. A great many verbs ending in -ar and -er, having the 
letter e in the next to the last syllable of the infinitive. 

2. The verbs concernir, to concern , and dlscernir, 
to discern. 

3. The verbs adquirir, to acquire , and inquirir, to 

inquire. 

The irregularity of these verbs consists in that the last 
vowel of the stem is changed to ie in the three singular per¬ 
sons and in the third person plural of the present indicative 
and of the present subjunctive, and in the second person 
singular of the imperative. The verbs are regular in all 
other respects. 






26 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§22 


Pensar, to think 


Indicative Present 


Subjunctive Present 


yo pienso 
tu piensas 
61 piensa 
ellos piensan 


yo piense 
tu pienses 
el piense 
ellos piensen 


Imperative 
piensa tu 


Perder, to lose 


Indicative Present 


Subjunctive Present 


yo pierdo 
tu pierdes 
el pierde 
ellos pierden 


yo pierda 
tu pierdas 
el pierda 
ellos pierdan 


Imperative 


pierde tu 


Discernii* 

Indicative Present 
yo discierno 
tu disciernes 
el discierne 
ellos disciernen 


to discern 

Subjunctive Present 
yo discierna 
tu disciernas 
el discierna 
ellos disciernan 


Imperative 


discierne tu 


Adquirir, to acquire 


Indicative Present 
yo adquiero 
tu adquieres 
el adquiere 
ellos adquieren 


Subjunctive Present 
yo adquiera 
tu adquieras 
el adquiera 
ellos adquieran 


Imperative 
adquiere tu 

34. The verb errar, to err , to mistake , belongs to this 
class, but, for euphonic reasons, changes the e to ye instead 
of ie: yo yerro, tu yerras, el yerra, etc. 





22 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


27 


CLASS II 


35. To this class belong: 

1. A great many verbs ending in -ar and -er and having 
the letter o in the next to the last syllable of the infinitive. 

2. The verb jugar, to play. 

The irregularity of these verbs consists in that the last 
vowel of the stem is changed to tie in the three singular 
persons and in the third person plural of the present indic¬ 
ative and of the present subjunctive, and in the second per¬ 
son singular of the imperative. The verbs are regular in all 
other respects. 


Contar, to count 


Indicative Present 
yo cuento 
tu cuentas 
el cuenta 
ellos cuentan 


Subjunctive Present 
yo cuente 
tu cuentes 
el cuente 
ellos cuenten 


Imperative 
cuenta tu 


Mover, to move 


Indicative Present 
yo muevo 
tu mu eves 

el mueve 
ellos mueven 


Subjunctive Present 


yo mueva 
tu muevas 
el mueva 
ellos muevan 


Imperative 
mueve tu 


Jugar, to play 


Indicative Present 
yo juego 
tu juegas 
el juega 
ellos juegan 


Subjunctive Present 
yo juegue (see Art. 27) 


tu juegues 
el juegue 
ellos jueguen 


Imperative 
juega tu 




28 SPANISH. GRAMMAR §22 

36. The verb oler, to smell, belongs to this class, but 
an h is introduced before the diphthong ue, as no Spanish 
word begins with this vowel combination: yo hue/o, tie, 
huefa, SI hti ele, etc. Similarly with desosar, to bone (to 
remove the bones from meat ), and desovar, to spawn: yo 
desfrueso, ellos deshuesan; SI deshneva, ellos deshwevan, etc. 
The last two verbs are derived from the substantives 
hueso, bone, and huevo, egg, respectively. 


CLASS III 

37. To this class belong all verbs in -acer (except hacer, 
to make), -ecer (except mecer, to swing), and -ocer (except 
cocer, to cook by boiling ), and a few in - ucir . Their irregu¬ 
larity consists in that they take z before the last c of the 
stem in the first person singular of the indicative present, 
and in all the persons of the subjunctive present. The conju¬ 
gation of hacer will be given in a subsequent article; mecer is 
regular; cocer belongs to Class II, and is therefore conjugated 
like mover (Art. 35). 


Nacer, to be born 

Indicative Present Subjunctive Present 


yo nazco yo nazca 

tu nazcas 

el nazca 

nosotros nazcamos 
vosotros nazcais 
ellos nazcan 


Ofrecer, to offer 

Indicative Present Subjunctive Present 


yo ofrezco 

yo 

ofrezca 


tu 

ofrezcas 


el 

ofrezca 


nosotros ofrezcamos 
vosotros ofrezcdis 
ellos ofrezcan 




§22 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


29 


Conocer, to know , to be acquainted with 
Indicative Present Subjunctive Present 


yo conozco 

yo 

conozca 


tu 

conozcas 


el 

conozca 


nosotros conozcamos 


vosotros 

conozcais 


ellos 

conozcan 


laicir, to shine 

Indicative Present Subjunctive Present 

yo luzco yo luzca 

tu luzcas 

el luzca 

nosotros luzcamos 
vosotros luzcais 
ellos luzcan 

38. The verb yacer, to lie , to be , may be conjugated 
like nacer {yo yaz,co, yo ywzca , etc.), or by changing the 
c into g\ yo yazgo, yo yazga, etc. 


CLASS IV 

39. This class includes all verbs in -ducir, which, besides 
having the irregularities of verbs belonging to Class III, 
are irregular in both preterits and in the hypothetic mode. 
They are conjugated after the following model: 


Traducir, to translate 

Indicative Present Subjunctive Present 


yo traduzco 

yo 

traduzca 


tu 

traduzcas 


el 

traduzca 


nosotros traduzcamos 
vosotros traduzc&is 
ellos traduzcan 


Indicative Preterit 


yo traduje 
tu tradujiste 
el tradujo 


nosotros tradujimos 
vosotros tradujisteis 
ellos tradujeron 




30 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§22 


Subjunctive Preterit 
trad uj era 
tradujese 
tradujeras 
tradujeses 

f trad uieramos 
nosotros< , , ., 

| tradujesemos 

f traduierais 
vosotros { , , . 

ftradujeseis 

„ ftradujeran 

e OS ftradujesen 


Hypothetic 
yo, el tradujere 
tu tradujeres 

nosotros tradujeremos 
vosotros tradujereis 
ellos tradujeren 


CLASS V 

40. This class includes all verbs in -eer. They change 
the i of all endings beginning with ie or io to y, when the i 
is not accented; which takes place in the gerund, in the third 
persons of the indicative preterit, and in all persons of the 
subjunctive preterit and of the hypothetic. 

Creer, to believe 

Gerund Indicative Preterit 

creyendo 61 creyd ellos creyeron 


Subjunctive Preterit 

Hypothetic 

^5 

6 

f creyera 

I creyese 

yo, 61 creyere 

tu < 

^creyeras 
[ creyeses 

tu creyeres 

nosotros< 

f creyeramos 
[ creyesemos 

nosotros creyeremos 

vosotros• 

f creyerais 

1 creyeseis 

vosotros creyereis 

ellos 

f creyeran 

1 creyesen 

ellos creyeren 


CLASS VI 

41. To this class belong several verbs in -ir having the 
letter e in the last syllable but one of the infinitive. They 
change this e to i in the gerund, the three singular persons 
and the third person plural of the indicative present, the 
third persons of the indicative preterit, all persons of the 
subjunctive and of the hypothetic mode, and the second 
person singular of the imperative. 




§22 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


31 


Servir, to serve 
Gerund 
sirviendo 


Indicative Present 


yo 

tu 

61 


sirvo 

sirves 

sirve 


Subjunctive Present 
yo sirva 

tu sirvas 

61 sirva 

nosotros sirvamos 
vosotros sirvdis 


ellos 

sirven 

ellos 

sirvan 


Indicative 

Preterit 



61 sirvio 

ellos sirvieron 


Subjunctive Preterit 

Hypothetic 

yo, 61 | 

[sirviera 
[sirviese 

yo, 61 

sirviere 

tu | 

\ sirvieras 
[sirvieses 

tu 

sirvieres 

nosotros| 

'sirvieramos 

sirviesemos 

nosotros sirvieremos 

vosotros -j 

[ sirvierais 
[sirvieseis 

vosotros 

sirviereis 

ellos \ 

\sirvieran 
[sirviesen 

ellos 

sirvieren 


Imperative 
sirve tu 

42. Verbs in -eir are considered to belong to this class, 
but they have the further irregularity that they discard the 
first i of the endings - iendo , -io, -ieron , -iera, -iese, - iesemos , 
-iere, etc. 

Heir, to laugh 

Gerund 

riendo ( not , riiendo) 

Indicative Present Subjunctive Present 


yo rio 

yo 

ria 

tu ries 

tu 

rias 

61 rie 

61 

ria 


nosotros 

riamos 


vosotros 

ridis 

ellos rien 

ellos 

rian 


32 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


22 


Indicative Preterit 


61 rio [not, riio) 


Subjunctive Preterit 


yo, el | 
- { 


nosotros 


vosotros 

ellos 


riera [not, riiera) 
riese [not, riiese) 
rieras [not, riieras) 
rieses [not, riieses) 
rieramos [not, riiera- 
mos) 

ridsemos [not, riiese- 
mos) 

rlerais [not, riieras) 
rieseis [not, riieseis) 
rieran [not, riieran) 
riesen [not, riiesen) 


ellos rieron [not, riieron) 
Hypothetic 

yo, el riere [not, riiere) 
tu rieres [not, riieres) 

nosotros rieremos [not, riidremos) 

vosotros riereis [not, riiereis) 
ellos rieren [not, riieren) 


Imperative 
rie tu 


43. Some verbs ending in -nir belong to this class, but, 
in conjugating them, the irregularity mentioned in Art. 32 
should be borne in mind. Thus, tenir, to dye, has the pret¬ 
erit cino, cififeron, not cinio, ci^ieron. 


CLASS VII 

44. To this class belong several verbs ending in -ir— 
nearly all those in - entir , -erir, -ertir, — which in the indica¬ 
tive and in the subjunctive present have the irregularities of 
Class I, and in the gerund, the first and the second person 
plural of the subjunctive present, the two preterits, the 
hypothetic, and the imperative, have those of Class VI. 

Preferir, to prefer 
Gerund 
prefiriendo 

Indicative Present Subjunctive Present 


yo 

prefiero 

yo 

prefiera 

tu 

prefieres 

tu 

prefieras 

61 

prefiere 

61 

prefiera 


nosotros prefiramos 
vosotros prefirdis 
ellos prefieran 


ellos prefieren 



SPANISH GRAMMAR 


33 


22 


Indicative Preterit 


el prefirio 

Subjunctive Preterit 

f prefiriera 

Iprefiriese 

f prefirieras 

\ pref irieses 

f prefirieramos 
nosotros< 

Iprefiriesemos 

f prefirierais 
vosotros< „ . 

tprefirieseis 


yo, el 


tu 


ellos 


f prefirieran 
Iprefiriesen 


ellos prefirieron 

Hypothetic 
yo, el prefiriere 
tu prefirieres 

nosotros prefirieremos 
vosotros prefiriereis 
ellos prefirieren 


Imperative 
prefiere tu 


45. The verb erguir, to erect , may be conjugated as 
belonging to either this class or to Class VI, but it changes 
initial i before e to y: yo irgo, or yo yergo; yo Irga, or yo 
yerga, etc. _ 


CLASS VIII 

46. This class comprises only the verbs dormir, to sleep; 
morlr, to die , and a few derivatives of these. Besides 
having the irregularities of Class II, they change the o of 
the stem to u in the gerund, the third persons of the indica¬ 
tive preterit, the first and the second person plural of the 
subjunctive present, all the subjunctive preterit, and the 
hypothetic. 

Dormir, to sleep 
Gerund 
durmiendo 

Indicative Present Subjunctive Present 


yo 

duermo 

yo 

duerma 

tu 

duermes 

tu 

dnermas 

el 

duerme 

el 

duerma 


*• 

nosotros dlirmamos 



vosotros durmdis 

ellos duermen 

ellos 

duerman 


Indicative Preterit 
61 dnrmid ellos durmieron 



34 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§22 


Subjunctive; Preterit 


yo, el 
tu 

nosotros 

vosotros 

ellos 


{ 

{ 

{ 

{ 

{ 


durmiera 

durmiese 

durmieras 

diirmieses 

durmieramos 

dlirmiesemos 

durmierais 

durmieseis 

durmieran 

durmiesen 


Hypothetic 
yo, el durmiere 

tu durmieres 

nosotros durmieremos 
vosotros durmiereis 
ellos durmieren 


Imperative 
duerme tu 


CJjASS IX 

47. To this class belong all verbs in -tar in which the u 
is not silent. This excludes verbs in - guir , like distingulr, 
to distinguish , but not verbs in -guir, like argiiir, to argue. 
The verbs of this class have the irregularities of Class V, 
and, besides, they add y to their stem in the three singular 
persons and the third person plural of the present indicative, 
in all the present subjunctive, and in the second person sin¬ 
gular of the imperative. Verbs in -guir discard the dieresis 
when the u is followed by y. 


Construir, to construct 
Gerund 
construyendo 


Indicative Present 

Subjunctive Present 

yo construyo 

yo construya 

tu construyes 

tu construyas 

el construye 

el construya 

nosotros construyamos 
vosotros construyais 

ellos eonstruyen 

ellos construyan 

Indicative Preterit 

el construyo 

ellos construyeron 

Subjunctive Preterit 

Hypothetic 

£1 f construyera 
^°’ 6 jconstruyese 

yo el construyere 



22 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


35 


construyeras 

construyeses 

. construyeramos 
nosotros! 17 , 

l construyesemos 

f construyerais 
vosotros < 

l construyesen 

construyeran 

construyesen 


tu construyeres 

nosotros construyeremos 
vosotros construyereis 
ellos construyeren 


Imperative 
construye tu 


CLASS X 

48. This class comprises the verbs salir, to go out; 
valer, to be worth; and a few derivatives of salir. The 
irregularities of these verbs are better illustrated than 
explained; they occur in the indicative present, future, and 
postpreterit, in the subjunctive present, and in the second 
person of the imperative. 

Salir, to go out 

Indicative Present Subjunctive Present 


yo salgo 

yo 

saiga 


tii 

saigas 


el 

saiga 


nosotros salgamos 


vosotros salgais 


ellos 

salgan 

Indicative Future 

Indicative Postpreterit 

yo saldre 

yo 

saldria 

tu saldras 

tu 

saldrias 

el saldra 

61 

saldria 

nosotros saldremos 

nosotros saldriamos 

vosotros saldreis 

vosotros saldriais 

ellos saldran 

ellos 

saldrian 


Imperative 
sal tu 


49. The imperative of valer is either vale or val. The 
verb valerse, to avail oneself , is conjugated like valer 
(or, salir). Sobresalir, to surpass , follows the same con¬ 
jugation, but its imperative is regular: sobre sale tu , and 
not, sobre sal tu. 



36 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


22 


CLASS XI 


50. This class includes several verbs in -iar and -uar. 
These verbs are treated by all grammarians as regular, 
because their irregularities relate to orthographic and pros¬ 
odic accentuation only. In this work they will not be so 
treated. 

The irregularity of verbs of this class consists in this — 
that all forms in which the prosodic accent is borne by the 
stem of the verb, are accented, both prosodically and ortho- 
graphically, on the last vowel of the stem (the i or the u , 
according as the verb ends in -iar or -uar ), instead of being 
accented on the vowel preceding. This occurs in the three 
singular persons and in the third person plural of the indic¬ 
ative and the subjunctive present, and in the second person 
singular of the imperative. Thus, the first person singular 
of the indicative present of estudiar, to study , is estwdio 
(emphasis on the u), and that of averiguar, to inquire , is 
aver\guo (emphasis on the i ). These verbs are regular. 
The corresponding forms of variar, to vary , and continual*, 
to continue , are, respectively, vario (emphasis on i) and 
continxxo (emphasis on u). These two verbs are irregular. 


Variar, to vary 


Indicative Present 
yo vario 
tu varias 
el varia 
ellos varian 


Subjunctive Present 
yo varie 
tu varies 
el varie 
ellos varien 


Imperative 
varia tu 


Continual*, to continue 


Indicative Present 
yo continuo 
tu continuas 
el continua 
, ellos continuan 


Subjunctive Present 


yo continue 
tu continues 
el continue 
ellos continuen 


Imperative 
continua tu 



22 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


37 


51. Verbs having no other vowel than i or u in the stem 
do not strictly belong to this class, since the accentuation of 
their forms is imposed by the very nature of their structure. 
Thus, the first person singular of the present indicative of 
fiar, to trust, cannot be other than fio, there being in this 
case no other vowel in the stem than i. 


UNCLASSIFIED IRREGULAR VERBS 

Note. —The derivatives of the following verbs follow the irregulari¬ 
ties of their respective primitives, unless otherwise stated. 


52. Andar, to walk , to go: irregular in the two preterits 
and in the hypothetic. 


Indicative Preterit 
yo anduve nosotros anduvimos 


tu anduviste 
el and uvo 

Subjunctive Preterit 

J and u viera 

\anduviese 

f anduvieras 

\ anduvieses 

1 anduvieramos 
nosotros { , 

anduviesemos 


yo, el 


tu 


vosotros 


f andnvierais 


ellos 


fanduvieseis 
f anduvieran 
.\anduviesen 


vosotros anduvisteis 
ellos anduvieron 

Hypothetic 

yo, el andnviere 

tu anduvieres 

nosotros anduvieremos 
vosotros anduviereis 
ellos anduvieren 


53. Asir, to grasp , to take hold of: irregular in the first 
person singular of the indicative present and in all the sub¬ 
junctive present. 

✓ 

Indicative Present Subjunctive Present 

yo asgo yo asga 

tu asgas 

el asga 

nosotros asgamos 
vosotros asg&is 
ellos asgan 


38 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


22 


54. Caber, to go into, to be containable in: irregular in 
the first person singular of the indicative present, in all the 
indicative preterit, future, and postpreterit, in all the sub¬ 
junctive, and in the hypothetic. 

Indicative: Present Subjunctive Present 


yo quepo 

yo 

quepa 


tu 

quepas 


el 

quepa 


nosotros 

quepamos 


vosotros quepais 


ellos 

quepan 

Indicative Future 

Indicative 

Postpreterit 

yo cabre 

yo 

cabria 

tu cabras 

tu 

cabrias 

el cabra 

el 

cabria 

nosotros cabremos 

nosotros cabriamos 

vosotros cabreis 

vosotros 

cabriais 

ellos cabran 

ellos 

cabrian 


Indicative Preterit 



yo cupe 

nosotros cupimos 


tu cupiste 

vosotros 

cupisteis 


el cupo 

ellos 

cupieron 

Subjunctive Preterit 


Hypothetic 

yo, el | 

\ cupiera 
[ cupiese 
\ cupieras 
[ cupieses 


yo, el eupiere 

tu j 

tu cuj)ieres 

nosotros | 

\ cupieramos 
[eupiesemos 


nosotros cupieremos 

vosotros | 

\ cupierais 
[cupieseis 


vosotros cupiereis 

ellos j 

[ cupieran 
[cupiesen 


ellos cupieren 

5. Caer, to {all: irregular in 

the gerund, in the first 


person singular of the indicative present, in the third persons 
of the indicative preterit, in all the subjunctive, and in the 
hypothetic. 

Gerund 

cayendo 


§22 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


39 


Indicative Present Subjunctive Present 


yo caigo 

yo caiga 



tu caigas 

el caiga 

nosotros calgamos 
vosotros caigdis 
ellos caigan 


Indicative Preterit 


61 cay 6 

ellos cayeron 

Subjunctive Preterit 

Hypothetic 

yo, el | 

\ cayera 

1 cayese 

yo, el cay ere 

tu | 

\ cayeras 
[ cayeses 

tu cayeres 

nosotros^ 

I cayeramos 
[cayesemos 

nosotros cayeremos 

vosolrosj 

f cayerais 
[ cayeseis 

vosotros cayereis 

ellos 

f cayeran 

1 cayesen 

ellos cayeren 


56. Dar, to give: irregular in the first person singular 
of the indicative present, in both preterits, and in the hypo¬ 
thetic. In the last three tenses, the regular endings of 
verbs in -er and -ir are added to the stem d-. 

Indicative Present 
yo doy 

Indicative Preterit 



yo di 

nosotros diraos 


tu diste 

vosotros disteis 


61 dio 

ellos dieron 

Subjunctive Preterit 

Hypothetic 

yo, el | 

l diera 
i. diese 

yo, 61 diere 

tu | 

\ diex*as 
[dieses 

tu dieres 

nosotros | 

[ dieramos 
l diesemos 

nosotros dieremos 

vosotros| 

[ dierais 
[dieseis 

vosotros diereis 

ellos i 

\ dieran 
[diesen 

ellos diei-en 


40 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§22 


The first person singular of the present subjunctive is 
written with an accent mark over the ending: de. 

57. Decir, to say, to tell: irregular in all modes and 
tenses, except the first and the second person plural of the 
indicative present, and all the copreterit. 


Gerund 

diciendo 


Indicative Present 

Subjunctive Present 

yo digo 

yo diga 

tu dices 

tu digas 

el dice 

el diga 

nosotros digamos 
vosotros dig&is 

ellos dicen 

ellos digan 

Indicative Postpreterit 

Indicative Future 

yo dire 

yo diria 

tu diras 

tu dirias 

el dira 

el diria 

nosotros diremos 

nosotros diriamos 

vosotros direis 

vosotros diriais 

ellos diran 

ellos dirian 

Indicative Preterit 

yo dije 

nosotros dijimos 

tu dijiste 

vosotros dijisteis 

el dijo 

ellos dijeron 

Subjunctive Preterit 

Hypothetic 

,, f difera 

yo, el \ 

fdijese 

yo, el dijere 

tli J dijeras 

\dijeses 

tu dijeres ■ 

f diieramos 
nosotros < , 

I drjesemos 

nosotros dijeremos 

I diferais 
vosotros •{ ... 

fdijeseis 

vosotros dijereis 

,, fdijeran 

ellos < ... 

fdijesen 

ellos dijeren 


Imperative 
di tu. 


§22 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


41 


58. The form diz is used in the sense of they say or it is 
said in the familiar expression diz que, they say that. 

Diz que el vapor naufrago.l I They say (or, It is said that) the 

El vapor diz que naufragd. / | steamer was wrecked. 

59. The derivatives of decir are regular in the indicative 
future and postpreterit; in the imperative they replace the end¬ 
ing -ecir with -ice, not with i. Thus, the imperative of contra- 
decir, to contradict, is contradxce tu. In all other forms 
they follow the primitive. As to the future and postpreterit, 
this rule is absolute with regard only to bendeciv, to bless, 
and maldecir, to curse; with other derivatives of decir, it is 
not very generally observed. Thus, either contradxvQ or 
coniradecive is proper as the future of contradecir. 

60. Estar, to be: conjugated in Part 2. 

61. Haber, to have: conjugated in Part 2. When this 
verb is employed without a subject in the sense of there to be, 
it has the form hay, there is, there are, for the indicative 
present. In all other tenses it is conjugated like the auxil¬ 
iary, but only the third persons are used. When used with 
reference to time elapsed, meaning ago, it has the form hd 
for the third person singular (no plural persons are employed 
in this sense) of the indicative present. These uses of haber 
will be treated at length in connection with subjectless verbs. 

62. The word h£, although seemingly an imperative 
form of haber, is really a modified form of the imperative 
ve of ver, to see, to look. It is employed with the adverbs 
aqux, here; ahi, alii, there, in the . literal sense of behold; 
although, in some cases, it is rendered by some other verb 
or expression having the same meaning, but better adapted 
to the circumstances. 


;He ahi el hombre! 

He aqui que, cuando nos acer- 
c&mos, hallamos solo rocas y 
arena. 

HI aqui tu libro. 

Hinos aqui, listos para partir. 


Behold the man! 

And lo! (or, Now, or, It happened 
that) when we approached, we 
found only rocks and sand. 

Here is your book. 

Here we are (or, Here you have 
us), ready to start. 



42 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§22 


63. Hacer, to do, to make: regular only in the gerund, 
the second and the third person singular of the indicative 
present, all the plural persons of the same tense, and all the 
copreterit.* 

Indicative Present Subjunctive Present 


yo hago yo haga 

tu hagas 

el haga 

nosotros hagamos 
vosotros hagais 
ellos hagan 


Indicative Future Indicative Postpreterit 


yo 

hare 

yo 

haria 

tu 

haras 

tu 

harias 

el 

hara 

el 

haria 

nosotros 

haremos 

nosotros hariamos 

vosotros 

hareis 

vosotros 

hariais 

ellos 

haran 

ellos 

harian 


Indicative Preterit 
yo hice nosotros hicimos 

tu liiciste vosotros liicisteis 

el liizo ellos liicieron 


Subjunctive Preterit 
(hiciera 
1 hiciese 
fliicieras 
\liicieses 
f liicieramos 
’\liiciesemos 
j hicierais 
'\liicieseis 
lliicieran 
\liiciesen 


yo, el 


tu 


nosotros<, 


vosotros{. 


ellos 


Hypothetic 
yo, el liiciere 

tu hicieres 

nosotros hicieremos 

vosotros liiciereis 

ellos liicieren 


Imperative 
haz tu 


64. Ir, to go: regular only in the indicative future and 
postpreterit. The two preterits and the hypothetic of this 
verb are identical with the corresponding tenses of ser, to be. 

*It is not necessary to mention the second person plural of the 
imperative, as no verb is irregular in this form (Art. 31). 



§22 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


43 


Gerund 

yendo 



Indicative Present 

Subjunctive Present 


yo 

voy 

yo 

vaya 


tu 

vas 

tu 

vayas 


61 

va 

el 

vaya 


nosotros vamos 

nosotros | 

i vayamos 
[vamos 


vosotros vais 

vosotros | 

\ vay&is 
[vais 


ellos 

van 

ellos 

vayan 


Indicative Preterit 

Indicative Copreterit 

yo 

fui nosotros fuimos 

yo iba nosotros ibamos 

tu fuiste vosotros fuisteis 

tu ibas vosotros ibais 

el 

fue ellos fueron 

el iba ellos iban 


Subjunctive Preterit 

Hypothetic 


MU 

o' 

[ fuera 
[fuese 

yo, el 

fuere 


tu | 

\ fueras 
[fueses 

tu 

fueres 


nosotros| 

[ fueramos 
[fuesemos 

nosotros fueremos 


vosotros | 

\ fuerais 
[fueseis 

vosotros 

fuereis 


ellos 

f fueran 
lfuesen 

ellos 

fueren 


Imperative 
ve tu 


65. Oil*, to hear: irregular in the gerund, in the three 
singular persons and the third person plural of the indica¬ 
tive present, in the third persons of the indicative preterit, 
in all the subjunctive, in the hypothetic, and in the second 
person singular of the imperative. 

Gerund 

oyendo 

Indicative Present Subjunctive Present 


yo 

oigo 

yo 

oiga 

tu 

oyes 

tu 

oigas 

el 

oye 

el 

oiga 


nosotros oigamos 
vosotros oig&is 

ellos oyen ellos oigan 


44 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


22 



Indicative Preterit 



61 oyd 

ellos oyeron 


Subjunctive Preterit 

Hypothetic 

yo, 61 | 

i oyera 
[ oyese 

yo, 61 

oyere 

tu | 

\ oyeras 
[ oyeses 

tu 

oyeres 

nosotrosj 

\ oyeramos 
[ oyesemos 

nosotros oyeremos 

vosotros| 

[ oyerais 

L oyesen 

vosotros oyereis 

ellos | 

\ oyeran 
[ oyesen 

ellos 

oyeren 


Imperative 
oye tu 


66. Placer, to please. —This verb is constructed like 
gustar, to like (see Part 4). It may be conjugated as 
belonging to Class III, but it has also the forms plegue , 
plugtiiera,-se, pluguiere for the subjunctive present, the sub¬ 
junctive preterit, and the hypothetic, respectively. The first 
two of these are used mainly in exclamations, and have 
an interjectional value. 


Haremos lo que a usted le plazca. 

iPlegue & Dios que no le con- 
denen a muerte! 

jPluguiese al cielo que no hubiese- 
mos alojado ese monstruo en 
nuestra casa! 


We shall do whatever you please 
(whatever pleases you). 

God grant he may not be sen¬ 
tenced to death! 

Would to Heaven we had not 
lodged that monster in our 
house! 


67. Poder, to be able: regular only in the first and the 
second person plural of the indicative present and of the 
subjunctive present, and in all the copreterit. 


Gerund 

pudiendo 


Indicative Present 
yo puedo 
tu puedes 
61 puede 
ellos pueden 


Subjunctive Present 
yo pueda 
tu puedas 
61 pueda 
ellos puedan 



§22 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


45 


Indicative Future 


yo 

podre 

tu 

podras 

61 

podra 


nosotros podremos 
vosotros podreis 
ellos podran 

yo pucle 
tu pudiste 
el pudo 


Indicative Postpreterit 
yo podria 

tu podrias 

el podria 

nosotros podriamos 
vosotros podriais 
ellos podrian 


Indicative Preterit 

nosotros pudimos 
vosotros pudisteis 
ellos pudieron 


Subjunctive Preterit 
pudiera 
pudiese 
pudieras 
pudieses 
pudieramos 
pudiesemos 
pudierais 
pudieseis 
pudieran 
pudiesen 


Hypothetic 
yo, 61 pudiere 
tu pudieres 

nosotros pudieremos 
vosotros pudiereis 
ellos pudieren 


yo, 61 | 

,u { 

nosotros j 
vosotros| 
ellos < 


Imperative 
puede tu 


68. Podrir, to rot: irregular in the gerund, in the three 
singular persons and in the third person plural of the indica¬ 
tive present, in the third persons of the indicative preterit, 
in all the subjunctive, in the hypothetic, and in the second 
person singular of the imperative. In all these forms, 
the o of the stem is changed to u. 


Gerund 

pudriendo 

Indicative Present Subjunctive Preterit 


yo pudro 

yo pndra 

tu pudres 

tu pndras 

61 pudre 

61 pndra 


nosotros pudramos 


vosotros pudr&is 

ellos pudren 

ellos pudran 


46 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


22 


Indicative Preterit 
el pudrio ellos pudrieron 


Subjunctive Preterit 
pudriera 
pudriese 
pudrieras- 
pudrieses 
pudrieramos 
pudriesemos 
pudrierais 
pudrieseis 
pudrieran 
pndriesen 


Hypothetic 
yo, el pudriere 

tu piidrieres 

nosotros pudrieremos 
vosotros pudriereis 
ellos pudrieren 


yo, 61 j 

- 1 

nosotros | 

vosotros| 
ellos t 


Imperative 


pudre tu 


69. The verb pwdrir , which is regular, has the same 
meaning as podrir , and may therefore be used in place of 
the latter. 


70. Poner, to put: regular only in the gerund, in the 
indicative present, except the first person singular, and in 
the copreterit. 

Indicative Present Subjunctive Present 


yo pongo 

yo 

ponga 


tu 

pongas 


61 

ponga 


nosotros pongamos 
vosotros pongais 
ellos pongan 


Indicative Future 


Indicative Postpreterit 


yo pondre 
tu pondras 

61 pondra 

nosotros pondremos 
vosotros pondreis 
ellos pondran 


yo 

pondria 

tu 

pondrias 

el 

pondria 

nosotros pondriamos 
vosotros pondriais 

ellos 

pondrian 


Indicative Preterit 


yo prise 
tu pusiste 
61 puso 


nosotros pusimos 
vosotros prrsisteis 
ellos pusieron 


V 


22 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


47 


Subjunctive Preterit 


Hypothetic 


yo, el 
tu 

nosotros 

vosotros 

ellos 


{ 

{ 

{ 

{ 

{ 


piisiera 

yo, el pusiere 

pusiese 

pusieras 

tu pusieres 

pusieses 

pusieramos 

nosotros pusieremos 

pusiesemos 

pusierais 

vosotros pusiereis 

pusieseis 

pusieran 

pusiesen 

ellos pusieren 


Imperative 
pon tu 

71. Querer, to wish; also, to love: regular only in the 
gerund, in the first and the second person plural of the indic¬ 
ative and of the subjunctive present, and in the indicative 
copreterit. 

Indicative Present Subjunctive Present 


yo 

quiero 

yo quiera 

tu 

quieres 

tu quieras 

el 

quiere 

el quiera 

ellos quieren 

ellos quieran 

Indicative Future 

Indicative Postpreterit 

yo 

querre 

yo queri’ia 

tu 

querras 

tu querrias 

el 

querra 

el queri'ia 

nosotros querremos 

nosotros querriamos 

vosotros 

querreis 

vosotros querriais 

ellos 

querran 

ellos querrian 

* 

Indicative Preterit 


yo quise 

nosotros quisimos 


tu quisiste 

vosotros quisisteis 


el quiso 

ellos quisieron 

Subjunctive Preterit 

Hypothetic 

yo, 61 | 

l quisiera 
[quisiese 

yo, el quisiere 

tu | 

f quisieras 
[quisieses 

tu quisieres 


48 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§22 


f quisieramos 
nosotros< , 

Iquisiesemos 

f quisierais 
vosotros! . . 

[quisieseis 

ellos {<l^ ieran 
[quisiesen 


nosotros quisieremos 
vosotros quisiereis 
ellos quisieren 


Imperative 
quiere tu 


72. Saber, to know: regular only in the gerund, in the 
indicative present (first person singular excepted) and copret¬ 
erit, and in the second person singular of the imperative. 


Indicative Present 

yo se yo 

tu 
el 

Indicative Future 

yo sabre 

tu sabras 

el sabra 

nosotros sabremos 
vosotros sabreis 
ellos sabran 


Subjunctive Present 
sepa nosotros sepamos 

sepas vosotros sei»ais 
sepa ellos sepan 

Indicative Postpreterit 

yo sabria 

tu sabrias 

61 sabria 

nosotros sabriamos 
vosotros sabriais 
ellos sabrian 


Indicative Preterit 
yo supe nosotros supimos 


tu supiste 
el supo 


vosotros supisteis 
ellos supieron 


Subjunctive Preterit 

Hypothetic 

yo, 61 

\ supiera 
( supiese 

^q3 

6 

>> 

supiere 

,u j 

\ supieras 
[ supieses 

tu 

supieres 

nosotros| 

\ supieramos 
[supiesemos 

nosotros 

supieremos 

vosotros| 

\ sujiierais 
[ supieseis 

vosotros 

supiereis 

ellos | 

r supieran 

L supiesen 

ellos 

supieren 


73. Satisfacer, to satisfy: conjugated like hacer , repla¬ 
cing the h- in the latter verb with satisf-. (See Art. 63.) 


22 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


49 


f liago, haga, hice, etc. 

y °\satlsfago, satisfaga, satisfice, etc. 

In the imperative, however, as well as in the preterit sub¬ 
junctive and in the hypothetic, the regular forms are equally 
proper. 

satisfaz tu, or, satisface tu 
yo satisficiese, or, yo satisfaciese 
61 satisficiere, or, el satisfaciere, etc. 

74. Ser, to be, and tener, to have: conjugated in Part 2. 

75. Traer, to bring: irregular in the gerund, in the first 
person singular of the present indicative, in the indicative 
preterit, in all the subjunctive, and in the hypothetic. 

Gerund 

trayendo 

Indicative Present Subjunctive Present 



yo traigo 

yo traiga 

tu traigas 

61 traiga 

nosotros traigamos 
vosotros traigdis 
ellos traigan 


Indicative Preterit 


yo traje 

nosotros trajimos 


tu trajiste 

vosotros trajisteis 


61 tra jo 

ellos trajeron 

Subjunctive Preterit 

Hypothetic 

yo, 61 | 

\ trajera 
trajese 

yo, 61 trajere 

tu | 

\ tra j eras 
[trajeses 

tu trajeres 

nosotrosj 

\ traj6ramos 
[ trajesemos 

nosotros trajeremos 

vosotros| 

\ trajerais 
[trajeseis 

vosotros trajereis 

ellos j 

f trajeran 
[trajesen 

ellos trajeren 


76. Formerly, trie- was substituted for tra- in the two 
preterits and in the hypothetic. 

yo trwje, ellos trwjeron, vosotros trwjeseis, etc. 


50 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


22 


77. Venir, to come: 
second person plural of 
indicative copreterit. 

Indicative Present 
yo vengo 
tu vienes 
61 viene 

ellos vienen 
Indicative Future 


regular only in the first and in the 
the indicative present, and in the 


Gerund 

viniendo 


Subjunctive Present 
yo venga 

tu • vengas 
el venga 

nosotros vengamos 
vosotros veng&is 
ellos vengan 

Indicative Postpreterit 


yo 

vendre 

yo vendria 

tu 

vendras 

tu vendrias 

el 

vendra 

61 vendria 

nosotros vendremos 

nosotros vendriamos 

vosotros vendreis 

vosotros vendriais 

ellos 

vendran 

ellos vendrian 

Subjunctive Preterit 

Hypothetic 

^3 

6 

\ viniera 
[ viniese 

yo, 61 viniere 

tu | 

\ vinieras « 

{vinieses 

tu vinieres 

nosotros | 

\ vinieramos 
l viniesemos 

nosotros vini6remos 

vosotros| 

\ vinierais 
[ vinieseis 

vosotros vlniereis 

ellos | 

\ vinieran 
[ viniesen 

ellos vinieren 


Imperative 
ven tu 

78. Ver, to see: irregular in the first person singular of 
the indicative present, in all the subjunctive present, and in 
the indicative copreterit. 

Indicative Present Subjunctive Present 

yo veo yo vea 

tu veas 

el vea 

nosotros veamos 
vosotros veais 
ellos vean 


§22 


SPANLSH GRAMMAR 


51 


Indicative Copreterit 
yo veia nosotros veiamos 

tu veias vosotros veiais 

«• el veia ellos veian 

79. Formerly, the copreterit was regular: yo via, tu 
z'ias, etc. These forms are still occasionally used in poetry. 


IRREGULAR PARTICIPLES 

80. Fust of Verbs Having Irregular Participles. 
The following is a list of verbs having an irregular participle. 
The abbreviation r. placed in parenthesis after an infinitive 
indicates that the verb is regular in other respects. Most 
all these verbs have several meanings besides those given 
in the table: the irregular participle applies in all cases, 
whatever the meaning of the verb. Only the most important 
derivatives are given. 


abrir (r.), to open: 

abierto 

entreabrir (r.), to half open: 

entreabierto 

cubrix* (r.), to cover: 

cubierto 

descubrir (r.), to discover: 

descubierto 

encubrir' (r.), to conceal: 

encubierto 

decir,* to say, to tell: 

diclxo 

contradecir, to contradict: 

contradicho 

desdecir, to unsay: 

desdicho 

interdecir, to interdict: 

interdicho 

predecir, to foretell: 

predicho 

esci'ibii* (r.), to write: 

esci'ito 

circunscribir (r.), to circumscribe: 

circunscrito 

inscribir (r.), to inscribe, to register: 

inscrito 

prescribir (r.), to prescribe: 

prescrito 

proscribir (r.), to proscribe: 

proscrito 

suscribir (r.), to subscribe: 

suscrito 

hacer, to make, to do: 

heclio 

contrahacer, to falsify: 

contrahecho 

deshacer, to undo: 

deshecho 

rehacer, to do over: 

rehecho 


*Bendecir, to bless , and maldecir, to curse , have regular 
participles: bendec\i\o, maldecido. The words bendito, blessed , 
holy, and maldito, damned, confounded , are mere adjectives. 




52 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§22 


imprimir (r. ), to print: 

impreso 

reimprimir (r.), to reprint: 

reim preso 

morir, to die: 

muerto 

poner, to put: 

puesto 

componer, to mend: 

compuesto 

deponer, to depose: 

depuesto 

disponer, to dispose: 

dispuesto 

exponer, to expound , to expose: 

expuesto 

imponer, to impose: 

impuesto 

oponer, to oppose: 

opuesto 

proponer, to propose: 

propuesto 

reponer, to replace: 

repuesto 

suponer, to suppose: 

supuesto 

satisfacer, to satisfy: 

satisfeclio 

absolver, to absolve: 

absuelto 

disolver, to dissolve: 

disuelto 

resolver, to resolve: 

resuelto 

ver, to see: 

vi sto 

entrever, to half see: 

entrevisto 

prever, to foresee: 

previsto 

volver, to come back: 

vuelto 

devolver, to give back: 

devuelto 

envolver, to wrap: 

envuelto 

revolver, to stir, to mix: 

revuelto 


81. Verbs Having Two Participles. —The following 
verbs have two participles, one regular and one irregular: 

freir, to fry: freido, frito 

matar, to kill: matado, muerto 

prender, to arrest: prendido, preso 

proveer, to purvey , to provide: proveido, provisto 
romper, to break: rompido, roto 


82. Frito is preferable to freido in all cases, although 


freido is not uncommon in 
passive voice. 

Han frito (or, freido') la carne. 

La carne fue frita (or, fretda) por 
un mal cocinero. 

.jQuiere usted los huevos fritos? 
El pescado no esta frito aun. 


compound tenses and in the 

They have fried the meat. 

The meat was fried by a bad cook. 

Do you wish your eggs fried? 

The fish is not yet fried. 


83. Muerto , which properly is the participle of morir, 
to die , may take the place of matado (although the latter 



§22 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


53 


is equally proper) when used in the sense of killing with 
violence, provided its accusative denotes a human being, 


and the construction is not 
- matado should be employed. 

Han muerto (or, matado ) al presi- 
dente. 

iCu&ntos terneros han matado 
hoy? 

La noticia lo ha matado. 


reflexive. In all other cases, 

The president has been killed. 

How many calves have been killed 
today? 

The news has killed him. 


84. Either preso or prendido may be used in compound 
tenses and in the passive voice; as a mere adjective, preso is 


the only permissible form. 

Han prendido (or, preso) al cri¬ 
minal. 

El desertor fue prendido (or, 
preso) por un espia. 

Los acusados estdn presos. 

This irregularity does not 
mean to arrest. 


They have arrested the criminal. 

The deserter was caught by a 
spy. 

The accused are arrested ( better , 
are in prison). 

apply when prender does not 


La casa se ha prendido. | The house has taken fire. 

85. Provisto is preferable to proveido in all cases, although 


the latter form is occasionally 

La ciudad estd provista de muni- 
ciones. 

El gobierno ha provisto municio- 
nes. 

El gobierno ha proveido (or, pro¬ 
visto) lo necesario para la de- 
fensa. 


employed in compound tenses. 

The city is provided with muni¬ 
tions. 

The government has provided 
munitions. 

The government has provided the 
necessary things for the defense. 


86. When romper is used transitively, meaning to break , 
or to tear , its participle is roto; when used intransitively, 
meaning to fall out , or to disregard , its participle is regular. 


^Quien ha roto estos platos? 

Mis guantes est&n rotos. 

Enrique y yo no habiamos rompi- 
do cuando eso sucedio. 

Ha rompido con toda formalidad. 


Who has broken these dishes? 

My gloves are torn. 

Henry and I had not fallen out 
when that happened. 

He has set aside every formality. 






54 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§22 


TABLE OF IRREGULAR VERBS 

Notk. —From this list are excluded all verbs that by their endings 
can be at once recognized as belonging to a certain class of irregulars; 
namely: verbs in -acer, -ecer, -ocer, except cocer, hacer, and satisfacer 
(see Art. 37; mecer is regular); verbs in -ducir (see Art. 39); verbs in 
-eer (see Art. 40); and verbs in -uir or - Mr (see Art. 47). A Roman 
numeral placed after a verb indicates the class to which the verb 
belongs. Arabic numerals refer to the article where the verb itself 
or another having the same irregularities is conjugated. 


abnegar, to renounce: I, 33 
absolver, to absolve, to acquit: 

II, 35 

absonar, to be ill-sounding: II, 
35 

absteners e, to abstain: 74 
abstraer, to abstract: 75 
abunolar, to prepare like a fritter: 
II, 35 

acentuar, to accent: XI, 50 
acertar, to hit (as a mark): I, 33 
aclocar, to brood: II, 35 
acollar, to hill (potatoes, etc.): 
II, 35 

acordar, to agree on, to resolve: 
II, 35 

acordarse, to recollect: II, 35 
acornar, to butt: II, 35 
acostar, to put to bed: II, 35 
acostarse, to go to bed: II, 35 
acrecentar, to increase: I, 33 
actuar, to perform: XI, 50 
adecentar, to render decent: I, 33 
adestrar, to train: I, 33 
adherir, to adhere: VII, 44 
adormir, to cause drowsiness: 
VIII, 46 

adormirse, to fall asleep: VIII, 46 
adquirir, to acquire: I, 33 
advertir, to notice, to inform: 
VII, 44 

afollar, to plait: II, 35 
aforar, to privilege: II, 35 
agorar, to soothsay: II, 35 
aguerrir, to inure to war: VI, 41 
alebrarse, to crouch: I, 33 


alentar, to breathe, to encourage: 
I, 33 

aliarse, to become allied: XI, 50 
aliquebrar, to clip (the wings of): 
I, 33 

almorzar, to breakfast: II, 35 
alongar, to elongate: II, 35 
amoblar, to furnish: II, 35 
amolar, to zvhet: II, 35 
amover, to remove: II, 35 
ampliar, to amplify: XI, 50 
andar, to go: 52 
ansiar, to yearn: XI, 50 
antedecir, to predict: 57 
anteponer, to give the preference 
to, to place before: 70 
antever, to foresee: 78 
apacentar, to tend grazing cattle: 

I, 33 

apercollar, to collar, to snatch: 

II, 35 

apernar, to seize by the leg: I, 
33 

apostar, to bet: II, 35 
apretar, to tighten: I, 33 
aprobar, to approve: II, 35 
arrendar, to rent: I, 33 
arrepentirse, to repent: VII, 44 
arriar, to haul down: XI, 50 
arriarse, to become overflowed: 
XI, 50 

ascender, to ascend: I, 33 
asentar, to set: I, 33 
asentir, to assent: VII, 44 
aserrar, to saw: I, 33 
asir, to take hold of: 53 


22 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


55 


TABLE OF IRREGULAR VERBS — (Continued) 


asolar, to lay waste: II, 35 
asoldar, to hire (manual labor): 
II, 35 

asonar, to accord (said of sounds): 

II, 35 

asonarse, to riot: II, 35 

asosegar, U down: I, 33 

asosegarse, J 

ataner, to concern: 32 
ataviar, to deck: XI, 50 
atender, to attend: I, 33 
atenerse, to abide, to rely: 74 
atentar, to feel of: I, 33 
atentarse, to be cautious: I, 33 
atenuar, to extenuate: XI, 50 
aterirse, to stiffen (with cold): 
VII, 44 

aterrar, to fell: I, 33 
atraer, to attract: 75 
atravesar, to cross, to traverse: I, 
33 

atronar, to din: II, 35 
avalentar, to embolden, to abet: 
I, 33 

avaluar, to appraise: XI, 50 
avenir, to reconcile (parties): 77 
avenirse, to agree, to compromise: 

77 

aventar, to winnow: I, 33 
avergonzar, to abash , to put 
to shame: II, 35 

avergonzarse, to be or become 
ashamed: II, 35 
averiar, to damage: XI, 50 
averiarse, to become damaged: 
XI, 50 

aviar, to minister: XI, 50 
aviarse, to get ready: XI, 50 
azolar, to adz (timber): II, 35 
balbucir, to stammer: III, 37 
bendecir, to bless: 57, 59 
bienquerer, to wish well: 71 
brunir, to burnish: 32 
bullir, to boil, to bubble: 32 


caber, to go into, to be containable 
in: 54 

caer, to fall: 55 

calentar, to warm, to heat: I, 33 
cegar, to blind: I, 33 
cenir, to gird: 32; VI, 41 
cerner, to sift: I, 33 
cerrar, to close: I, 33 
cimentar, to ground: I, 33 
clocar, to cluck: II, 35 
cocer, to boil, to bake: II, 35 
colar, to strain: II, 35 
colegir, to infer: VI, 41 
colgar, to hang: II, 35 
comedirse, to be obliging: VI, 41 
comenzar, to begin, to start: I, 33 
competir, to vie, to compete: VI, 
41 

complanir, to weep: 32 
componer, to compound, to mend: 

70 

comprobar, to verify: II, 35 
concebir, to conceive: VI, 41 
conceptuar, to judge: XI, 50 
concernir, to concern: I, 33 
concertar, to concert: I, 33 
concordar, to accord, to match: 
II, 35 

condescender, to condescend: I, 33 
condolerse, to condole: II, 35 
conferir, to co7ifer: VII, 44 
confesar, to confess: I, 33 
confiar, to trust: XI, 50 
conmover, to stir (the emotions), 
to touch: II, 35 

conseguir, to obtain, to attain: 
VI, 41 

consentir, to consent: VII, 44 
consolar, to console: II, 35 
consonar, to rhyme: II, 35 
constrenir, to constrain: 32; VI, 

41 

contar, to count, to tell: II, 35 
contender, to contend: I, 33 


56 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§22 


TABLE OF IRREGULAR VERBS — (Continued) 


continuar, to continue: XI, 50 
contorcerse, to writhe: II, 35 
contradecir, to contradict: 57, 59 
contraer, to contract: 75 
contrahacer, to counterfeit: 03 
contraponer, to oppose: 70 
contrariar, to vex, to counteract: 
XI, 50 

contravenir, to transgress: 77 
controvertir, to controvert: . VII, 
44 

convenir, to agree, to befit: 77 
convertir, to convert: VII, 44 
corregir, to correct: VI, 41 
costar, to cost: II, 35 
cromolitografiar, to chromolitho¬ 
graph: XI, 50 
chirriar, to squeak: XI, 50 
dar, to give: 56 
decaer, to decay: 55 
decentar, to impair: I, 33 
decir, to say, to tell: 57 
defender, to defend: 1, 33 
deferir, to differ, to yield: VII, 44 
degollar, to kill by cutting the 
throat: II, 35 

demoler, to demolish: II, 35 
demostrar, to demonstrate: II, 35 
denegar, to deny, to refuse: I, 33 
denostar, to revile: II, 35 
dentar, to teeth, to indent: I, 33 
deponer, to depose: 70 
derrengar, to hip: I, 33 

f rret i r ' \to melt: VI, 41 
derretirse, J 

derroear, to overthrow: II, 35 
desacertar, to err, to miss (the 
mark): I, 33 

desacordar, to disagree: II, 35 
desadvertir, to act inadvertently: 
VII, 44 

desafiar, to challenge: XI, 50 
desaforar, to infringe privileges: 

II, 35 


desaforarse, to become offensive or 
outrageous: II, 35 
desalentar, to discourage: I, 33 
desamoblar, to unfurnish: II, 35 
desandar, to retrace one's steps: 
52 

desapretar, to loosen: I, 33 
desaprobar, to disapprove: II, 35 
desarrendar, to unbridle: I, 33 
desasentar, to upset, to disturb: 
VII, 44 

desasir, to let loose: 53 
desasosegar, to disquiet: I, 33 
desatender, to disregard: I, 33 
desatentar, to distract: I, 33 
desatentarse, to act frantically: 
I, 33 

desaterrar, to unearth: I, 33 
desatraer, to sever: 75 
desatravesar, to uncross: 33 
desavenir, to derange: 77 
desavenirse, to disagree: 77 
desaviar, to unprovide: XI, 50 
descabullirse, to scamper: 32 
descarriar, to lead astray: XI, 50 
descender, to descend: I, 33 
descenir, to ungird: 32; VI, 41 
descolgar, to unhang: II, 35 
descollar, to overtop: II, 35 
descomedirse, to misbehave, to 
exceed the limits of propriety: 
VI, 41 

descomponer, to disarrange: 7O 
desconceptuar, to decry: XI, 50 
desconcertar, to disconcert: I, 33 
desconsentir, to disco?isent, to dis¬ 
sent: VII, 44 

desconsolar, to distress: II, 35 
descontar, to discount: II, 35 
descontinuar, to discontinue: XI, 

50 

desconvenir, to disagree: 77 
descordar, to uncord (a string 
instrument): II, 35 


§22 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


57 


TABLE OF IRREGULAR VERBS-(Continued) 


descornar, to dishorn: II, 35 
desdecir, to gainsay: 57, 59 
desdecirse, to retract: 57, 59 
desdentar, to knock out the teeth: 

I, 33 

desempedrar, to unpave: I, 33 
desencerrar, to unpen: I, 33 
desencordar, to uncord, to un¬ 
string: II, 35 

desengrosar, to make thin: II, 35 
desentenderse, to take no notice, 
to ignore: I, 33 
desenterrar, to unbury: I, 33 
desenvolver, to unfold, to unroll: 

II, 35 

desflocar, to ravel out fringes: 
II, 35 

desgobernar, to misgoverni: I, 33 
deshacer, to undo: 63 
deshelar, to thaw: I, 33 
desherbar, to uproot herbs: I, 33 
desherrar, to unshoe (horses): 1,33 
desleir, to dilute, to dissolve: 
VI, 42 

deslendrar, to clear of nits: I, 33 
deslucir, to tarnish: III, 37 
desmajolar, to uproot vines: II, 35 
desmedirse, to transgress, to act 
rudely or otherwise improperly: 
VI, 41 

desmelar, to gather honey from a 
hive: I, 33 

desmembrar, to dismember: I, 33 
desmentir, to give the lie: VII, 44 
desmullir, to rumple: 32 
desnevar, to thaw: I, 33 
desoir, to disregard: 65 
desolar, to desolate: II, 35 
desoldar, to unsolder: II, 35 
desollar, to flay , to skin: II, 35 
desosar, to bone: II, 36 
desovar, to spazvn: II, 36 
despedir, to emit, to dismiss: 
VI, 41 


despedirse, to bid good by: VI, 41 
despedrar, to clear of stones: 
I, 33 

despernar, to maim the legs of: 
I, 33 

despertar, to wake: I, 33 
despezar, to divide into adjustable 
pieces: I, 33 

desplegar, to unfold, to deploy: 
I, 33 

despoblar, to depopulate: II, 35 
destenir, to discolor: 32; VI, 43 
desterrar, to banish, to exile: 

I, 33 

destorcer, to untwist: II, 35 
destrocar, to barter back: II, 35 
desvergonzarse, to lose all shame: 

II, 35 

desvirtuar, to pall: XI, 50 
desvolver, to alter the shape of: 
II, 35 

detener, to detain, to stop: 74 
detraer, to withdraw, to detract: 

75 

devolver, to return, to restore: 
II, 35 

dezraar, to decimate: I, 33 
diferir, to delay, to defer: VII, 44 
digerir, to digest: VII, 44 
discernir, to discern: I, 33 
discordar, to disagree, to discord: 
II, 35 

disentir, to dissent: VII, 44 
disolver, to dissolve: II, 35 
disonar, to disagree in sound: 
II, 35 

dispertar, to wake: I, 33 
disponer, to dispose, to arrange: 

70 

distender, to distend: I, 33 
distraer, to amuse, to distract: 75 
divertir, to divert, to amuse: 
VII, 44 

dolar, to plane: II, 35 


58 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§22 


TABLE OF IRREGULAR VERBS—(Continued) 


doler, to pain , to ache: II, 35 
dormir, to sleep: VIII, 46 
efectuar, to effect: XI, 50 
elegir, to elect , to choose: VI, 41 
embestir, to make an onslaught: 
VI, 41 

emparentar, to become related by 
marriage: I, 33 
empedrar, to pave: I, 33 
empellar, to shoulder with vio¬ 
lence , to buffet with the breast: 
I, 33 

empezar, to begin: I, 33 
emporcar, to soil: II, 35 
encender, to light: I, 33 
encerrar, to lock in, to confine: 
I, 33 

enelocar, to brood: II, 35 
encomendar, to entrust , to commit: 

I, 33 

encontrar, to meet , to encounter: 

II, 35 

encorar, to leather: II, 35 
encordar, to string: II, 35 
encornar, to gore with the horns: 
II, 35 

encovar, to encave: II, 35 
encubertar, to furnish with a 
cover: I, 33 

endentar, to indent: I, 33 
enfriar, to cool: XI, 50 
engorar, to addle: II, 35 
engrei'r, to make vain: VI, 42 
engreirse, to become vain: VI, 42 
engrosar, to increase in size or 
number: II, 35 
enlucir, to whitewash: III, 37 
engullir, to gobble: 32 
enhestar, to set upright: I, 33 
enlenzar, to bandage with cloth: 
I, 33 

enmelar, to besmear with honey: 
I, 33 

enmendar, to amend: I, 33 


ensangrentar, to imbrue , to stain 
with blood: I, 33 
entender, to understand: I, 33 
enterrar, to bury: I, 33 
entortar, to make crooked , to make 
one-eyed: II, 35 
entredecir, to interdict: 57, 59 
entrelucir, to glimmer: III, 37 
entremorir, to flicker: VIII, 46 
entreoir, to hear confusedly: 65 
entretener, to entertain , to delay: 
74 

entrever, to have a glimpse of: 78 
envestir, to invest: VI, 41 
enviar, to send: XI, 50 
envolver, to wrap: II, 35 
equivaler, to be equivalent: X, 48 
erguir, to erect: 45 
errar, to err , to mistake: 34 
escabullirse, to slink: 32 
escarmentar, to take warning: 
I, 33 

esforzar, to exert: II, 35 
espiar, to espy: XI, 50 
estar, to be: 60 

estregar, to rub , to scour: I, 33 
estrenir, to restrain: 32; VI, 43 
estriar, to flute: XI, 50 
exceptuar, to except: XI, 50 
expedir, to expedite: VI, 41 
expiar, to expiate: XI, 50 
exponer, to expose: 70 
extasiarse, to become enraptured: 
XI, 50 

extender, to extend: I, 33 
extenuar, to attenuate , to enfeeble: 
XI, 50 

extraer, to extract: 75 
extraviar, to mislead: XI, 50 
ferrar, to garnish or strengthen 
with iron points or bands: I, 33 
foliar, to blow with bellows: II, 35 
fotogrofiar, to photograph: XI, 50 
forzar, to force: II, 35 


§22 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


59 


TABLE OF IRREGULAR VERBS-(Continued) 


fregar, to scrub, to scour: I, 33 
frelr, to fry: 42 
ganir, to yelp, to croak: 32 
gemir, to groan: VI, 41 
gloriarse, to glory , to delight, to 
boast: XI, 50 
gobernar, to govern: I, 33 
graduar, to graduate: XI, 50 
grunir, to grunt: 32 
guanir, to squeal: 32 
haber, to have, there to be: 61, 62 
habituar, to accustom, to inure: 
XI, 50 

hacendarse, to acquire land es¬ 
tates: I, 33 

hacer, to make, to do: 63 
hastiar, to cause loathsomeness: 
XI, 50 

hastiarse, to become disgusted: 
XI, 50 

heder, to stink: I, 33 
helar, \ f reeze: 33 
helarse, J 

henchir, to stuff: VI, 41 
hender, to chink, to cleave: I, 33 
henir, to knead: VI, 43 
herbar, to tan (skins): I, 33 
herir, to zvoiaid, to hurt: VII, 44 
herrar, to shoe (horses): I, 33 
hervir, to boil: VII, 44 
holgar, to be at leisure, to dally: 
II, 35 

hollar, to tread upon, to trample: 
II, 35 

impedir, to impede, to prevent: 
VI, 41 

imponer, to impose, to acquaint: 

70 

improbar, to disapprove: II, 35 
incensar, to perfume with incense: 
I, 33 

indisponer, to indispose: 70 
infatuarse, to be or become infatu¬ 
ated: XI, 50 


inferir, to infer: VII, 44 
infernar, to damn: I, 33 

mgenr A to insert: VII, 44 
mjerir, \ 

ingerirse, to meddle: VII, 44 
inquirir, to inquire, to investigate: 

I, 33 

inseguir, to purszie: VI, 41 
interdecir, to interdict: 57, 59 
interponer, to interpose: 70 
intervenir, to intervene, to 'inter¬ 
fere: 77 

invernar, to winter: I, 33 
invertir, to invert: VII, 44 
investir, to invest: VI, 41 
ir, to go: 64 
jugar, to play: II, 35 
litografiar, to lithograph: XI, 50 
lucir, to shine: III, 37 
llover, to rain: II, 35 
maldecir, to curse: 57, 59 
malherir, to wound severely: VII, 
44 

malquerer, to bear ill will: 71 
mancornar, to couple (oxen): 

II, 35 

manifestar, to manifest: I, 33 
mantener, to maintain, to sup¬ 
port: 74 

medir, to measure: VI, 41 
melar, to boil cane juice: I, 33 
mentar, to mention: I, 33 
mentir, to lie: VII, 44 
merendar, to hatch: I, 33 
moblar, to furnish: II, 35 
moler, to grind, to -mill: II, 35 
morder, to bite: II, 35 
morir, to die: VIII, 46 
mostrar, to show: II, 35 
mover, to move: II, 35 
mullir, to cushion: 32 
munir, to summon: 32 
negar, to deny: I, 33 
nevar, to snow: I, 33 



60 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


22 


TABLE OF IRREGULAR VERBS-(Continued) 


obtener, to obtain: 74 
dr, to hear: 65 
oler, to smell: II, 36 
oponer, to oppose: 70 
pedir, to petition , to ask for: VI, 
41 

pensar, to think: I, 33 
perder, to lose: I, 33 
perniquebrar, to break the legs of: 
I, 33 

perpetuar, to perpetuate: XI, 50 
perseguir, to persecute , to pursue: 
VI, 41 

pervertir, to pervert: VII, 44 
placer, to please: 66 
planir, to bewail: 32 
plegar, to fold , to plait: I, 33 
poblar, to populate: II, 35 
poder, to be able: 67 
podrir, to rot: 68 
poner, to put: 70 
porfiar, to strive: XI, 50 
posponer, to postpone: 70 
predecir, to foretell , to predict: 
57, 59 

predisponer, to prearrange , to pre¬ 
dispose: 70 

preferir, to prefer: VII, 44 
prelucir, to shine forth: III, 37 
premorir, to die before another: 

VIII, 46 

preponer, to place before: 70 
presenter, to forebode: VII, 44 
presuponer, to presuppose , to as¬ 
sume: 70 

prevalerse, to avail oneself: X, 48 
prevenir, to caution: 77 
prever, to foresee: 78 
probar, to prove: II, 35 
proferir, to utter: VII, 44 
promover, to promote: II, 35 
proponer, to propose: 70 
proseguir, to pursue , to continue: 
VI, 41 


provenir, to arise , to be due: 70 
puntuar, to punctuate: XI, 50 
quebrar, to break: I, 33 
querer, to wish , to love: 71 
reapretar, to tighten: I, 33 
reaventar, to winnow anew: I, 33 
rebendecir, to bless anew: 57,59 
rebullir, to stir: 32 
rebullirse, to move briskly: 32 
recaer, to relapse , to fall to (as 
one's rights): 55 
recalentar, to reheat: I, 33 
recentar, to leaven: I, 33 
recenir, to re-gird: 32; Vi, 43 
recocer, to overboil: II, 35 
recolar, to strain anew: II, 35 
recomendar, to recommend: I, 33 
recomponer, to re-compose, to mend 
again: 70 

recontar, to re-count: II, 35 
reconvenir, to reprimand: 77 
recordar, to remind , to recollect: 
II, 35 

recostar, to lean against: II, 35 
recriar, to rear (colts): XI, 50 
redituar, to yield revenue: XI, 50 
redder, to cause slow pain: II, 35 
reelegir, to re-elect: VI, 41 
reencomendar, to commend anew: 
I, 33 

referir, to refer , to tell: VII, 44 
reforzar, to strengthen: II, 35 
refregar, to rub: I, 33 
refreir, to over fry: VI, 42 
reganir, to yelp repeatedly: 32 
regar, to water , to irrigate: I, 33 
regimentar, to organize in regi¬ 
ments: I, 33 

regir, to govern, to manage: VI, 41 
regoldar, to belch: II, 35 
regrunir, to snarl: 32 
rehacer, to make anew: 63 
rehacerse, to rally: 63 
rehenchir, to stuff anew: VI, 41 


§22 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


61 


TABLE OF IRREGULAR VERBS-(Continued) 


reherir, to rebut: VII, 44 
reherrar, to re-shoe (horses): 1,33 
rehervir, to boil again: VII, 44 
rehollar, to trample: II, 35 
reir, to laugh: VI, 42 
relucir, to glitter: III, 37 
remendar, to mend: I, 33 
rementir, to lie repeatedly: VII, 44 
remoler, to regrind: II, 35 
remorder, to cause remorse: II, 35 
remover, to remove: II, 35 
rendir, to surrender, to subdue, to 

yield: VI, 41 

renegar, to disown, to curse: I, 33 
renovar, to renew: II, 35 
renir, to scold, to quarrel: 32; 

VI, 43 

repensar, to think over: I, 33 
repetir, to repeat: VI, 41 
replegar, to fall back: I, 33 
repoblar, to repeople: II, 35 
reponer, to replace, to restore: 70 
reponerse, to recover from illness: 

70 

reprobar, to reprobate, to reject: 

II, 35 

requebrar, to woo, to dally: I, 33 
requerer, to love extremely: 71 
requerir, to require: VII, 44 
resaber, to know very well: 72 
resalir, to jut out, to project: X, 48 
resegar, to mozv anew: I, 33 
resembrar, to re-sow: I, 33 
resentirse, to resent: VII, 44 
resfriarse, to take cold: XI, 50 ■ 
resolver, to resolve, to decide: II, 

35 

resollar, to breathe: II, 35 
resonar, to resound: II, 35 
resquebrar, to split, to crack: I, 33 
restregar, to rub, to scrub: I, 33 
restrenir, to constrain: 32; VI, 43 
retemblar, to vibrate, to shake: I, 
33 


retener, to retain: 74 
retentar, to relapse: I, 33 
retenir, to dye again: 32; VI, 43 
retinir, to tinkle, to click: 32 
retorcer, to twist: II r 35 
retostar, to toast brown: II, 35 
retraer, to dissuade, to retrieve: 75 
retrotraer, to place things in a 
former condition: 75 
revenirse, to ooze: 77 
reventar, to burst: I, 33 
rever, to review: 78 
reverter, to overflow: I, 33 
revestir, to don, to vest: VI, 41 
revolar, to fly around: II, 35 
revolcarse, to wallow: II, 35 
revolver, to revolve, to stir: II, 35 
rociar, to sprinkle: XI, 50 
rodar, to roll: II, 35 
rogar, to entreat: II, 35 
saber, to know: 7 2 
salir, to go out: X, 48 
salpimentar, to season with pepper 
and salt: I, 33 
salpullir, to blister: 32 
sarmentar, to gather vine shoots: 
I, 33 

sarpullir, to become covered with a 
rash: 32 

satisfacer, to satisfy: 73 
segar, to mow: I, . 33 
seguir, to follow: VI, 41 
sembrar, to sow: I, 33 
sementar, to seed: I, 33 
sentar, to set down, to suit, to 
become: I, 33 

sentarse, to sit down: I, 33 
sentir, to feel: VII, 44 
ser, to be: 74 
serrar, to saw: I, 33 
servir, to serve: VI, 41 
situar, to place, to situate: XI, 50 
sobrentenderse, to be understood: 
I, 33 


62 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


22 


TABLE OF IRREGULAR VERBS - (Continued) 


sobreponer, to superpose: 70 
sobreponerse, to overcome: 70 
sobresalir, to surpass, to outvie: 
X, 48, 49 

sobresembrar, to sow broadcast: 

I, 33 

sobresolar, to overpave: II, 35 
sobrevenir, to supervene: 77 
sofreir, to fry slightly: VI, 42 
solar, to floor, to pave, to sole: 

II, 35 

soldar, to soldier: II, 35 
soler, to be wont: II, 35 
soltar, to untie, to set free: II, 35 
solver, to solve: II, 35 
sonar, to sound: II, 35 
sonrefr, to smile: VI, 42 
sonrodarse, to stick in the mud: 
II, 35 

sonar, to dream: II, 35 
sosegar, to appease: I, 33 
sosegarse, to quiet dozen: I, 33 
sostener, to sustain, to support: 7 4 
soterrar, to bury, to put tender 
ground: I, 33 
subarrendar, to sublet: I, 33 
subentenderse, to be tacitly under¬ 
stood: I, 33 

subseguir, to follow next: VI, 41 
subtender, to subtend: I, 33 
subvenir, to aid, to supply: 77 
subvertir, to overthrow, to sub¬ 
vert: VII, 44 
sugerir, to suggest: VI, 41 
superponer, to superpose: 70 
supervenir, to supervene: 77 
suponer, to suppose: 70 
sustraer, to subtract: 75 
taner, to play harmoniously: 32 
telegrafiar, to telegraph: XI, 50 
temblar, to tremble: I, 33 
tender, to stretch, to spread: I, 33 
tener, to have: 74 
tentar, to touch, to tempt: I, 33 


tenir, to dye: 32; VI, 41 
torcer, to twist: II, 35 
tostar, to toast: II, 35 
traer, to bring: 7 5 
trascender, to transcend: I, 33 
trascolar, to percolate: II, 35 
trascordarse, to slip one's mind: 
II, 35 

trasegar, to turn topsyturvy, to 
decant: I, 33 

trasferir, to trazisfer: VII, 44 
traslucirse, to transluce, to be vis¬ 
ible through: III, 37 
trasolr, to hear wrong: 65 
trasonar, to fancy erroneously: 
II, 35 

trasponer, to transpose: 70 
trastrocar, to invert: II, 35 
trasverter, to overflow, to run 
over: I, 33 

trasvolar, to overfly: II, 35 
trocar, to exchange: II, 35 
tronar, to thunder: II, 35 
tropezar, to stumble: I, 33 
tullir, to maim: 32 
usufructuar, to enjoy usufruct: 
XI, 50 

valer, to be worth: X, 48 
valuar, to rate, to valtce: XI, 50 
variar, to vary: XI, 50 
venir, to come: 77 
ventar, to blow (said of the wind): 
I, 33 

ver, to see: 78 

verter, to pour out, to translate: 
I, 33 

vestir, to dress: VI, 41 
volar, to fly: II, 35 
volcar, to capsize, to upset: II, 35 
volver, to turn, to return: II, 35 
yacer, to be, to lie: 38 
yuxtaponer, to juxtapose: 70 
zabullir, to plunge: 32 
zaherir, to upbraid: VII, 44 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 

(PART 8) 


THE VERB— (Continued) 


DEFECTIVE AND IMPERSONAL VERBS 


DEFECTIVE VERBS 

1. Definition.—There are verbs that lack some forms 
or inflections, either because these forms are excluded by the 
very meaning of the verbs, or simply because usage does 
not sanction the employment of them. These verbs are 
called defective verbs. The English auxiliaries can and 
must may s-erve as examples: they lack the infinitive and all 
compound tenses, usage not allowing such forms as to must , 
I have canned , you will can. 

2. Defective Verbs by Usage.—The following verbs 
are used only in the infinitive and in those forms obtained by 
adding to the infinitive stem (or to the altered stem, in the 
case of irregular verbs) an ending beginning with z: 

abolir, to abolish 
aguerrir, to inure to war 

arrecirse, \ QW num fr with cold 
aterirse, J 

desmarrirse, to grow sad 

The forms that these verbs lack must be supplied by forms 
of other verbs, such as empedernecer , garantizar , aterrar , 
which are synonymous with empedernir , garantir, and des- 
pavorir, respectively. 

For notice ot copyright , see page immediately following the title page 
l 23 


despavorir, to frighten 
embair, to impose upon 
empedernir, to harden 
garantir, to guarantee 
manir, to become tender 






) 


2 SPANISH GRAMMAR §23 


3. The verb raer, to erase, is seldom used except in the 
infinitive and in the participle. Its other forms can be 
obtained by conjugating it like caer, to fall, although the 
combination ig is often replaced by y. 

Indicative Present Subjunctive Present 



J raigo 


yo i 

f raiga 

yo 

jrayo 


(ray a 

tu 

raes 



\ raigas 
[ ray as 

el 

rae, etc. 

Gerund 

61 < 

f raiga 
(raya, etc. 


rayendo 


4. When reponer means to reply, it is used in the indic¬ 
ative preterit only. 

5. The verb roer, to gnaw, is seldom used in the first 
person singular of the indicative present. It is conjugated 
like verbs in - eer, although any of the following forms may 
be employed in the indicative present and in the same tense 
of the subjunctive: 


Indicative Present 

( roo 
roigo 
royo 

(Other persons regular) 


Subjunctive Present 


yo, 61 


tu 


nosotros 


vosotros 


ellos 


ro- 1 
roig- [a 
roy- J 

ro- | 

roig- >as 
roy- J 
ro- 

roig- lamos 
roy- J 
ro- 

roig- >ais 
roy- J 
ro- 

roig- lan 

roy- J 


The derivative corroer, to corrode, is conjugated all 
through like verbs in -eer, but is not employed in the first 
person singular of the indicative present. 


23 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


3 


(3. Soler, to be wont, to be in. the habit of, is used only in 
the indicative present and copreterit. 


La Patti suele venir a los Estados 
Unidos todos los anos. 

Tti ya no vienes k verrne, como 
so lias. 

7. The verb usucapir, to 
forms but the infinitive. 


Patti usually comes to the United 
States every year. 

You no longer come to see me, as 
you used to (more literally , as 
you were wont to). 

acquire by possession, lacks all 


8. Verbs Tbat Are Defective by Virtue of Tlieir 
Meaning. —Among these verbs may be mentioned nacer, 
to be born, and morir, to die. The forms that they lack are 
obviously indicated by the facts they denote, and need not be 
stated in detail. No person can refer to his having died, or 
to his going to be born, and so the preterit yo mori and the 
future yo nacere are not used, simply because they are mean¬ 
ingless. When, however, these verbs are employed figur¬ 
atively, they cease to be defective. 


Muchos anos ha que mori para el 
mundo. 

(iCudndo, Dios mio, dejard esta 
vida miserable, y nacere ver- 
daderamente? 


It is a great many years since I 
died to the world. 

When, O God, shall I leave this 
wretched life, and be truly born? 


9. Concernir and ataner, both of which mean to con¬ 
cern, are employed in the third persons only. 


Eso no nos atahe a nosotros. 

Todo lo que concierne k la salud 
de los enfermos esta en manos 
de medicos experimentados. 

Como ese era un asunto que a mi 
poco me atania, no le preste 
mucha atencion. 


That does not concern us. 

All that concerns the health of the 
patients is in the hands of expe¬ 
rienced physicians. 

As that was an affair that con¬ 
cerned me little, I did not pay 
much attention to it. 


10. Subjectless and other impersonal verbs, presently to 
be considered, might perhaps be classed with defectives, 
because they are used in the third persons only. Their great 
importance, however, and the peculiarities of their gram¬ 
matical construction, make it advisable to class and treat 
them separately. 





4 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


23 


SUBJECTLESS VERBS 

11. Definition. —A subjectless verb is, as the name 
implies, a verb having no subject, either expressed or under¬ 
stood. There are no such verbs in English, the indefinite 
pronoun it serving as the grammatical subject of all verbs 
having no logical subject; that is, those denoting facts or 
events that are not attributed to anything whose name 
might be the subject of the verb. Thus, to rain expresses a 
natural phenomenon that, not being conceived as the action 
of any thing or being, cannot be attributed to, or predicated 
of, any real subject; and so, in the sentence it rains , the word 
it, although grammatically treated as the subject of rains, 
does not really represent the thing that rains; it does not 
denote a thing of which something is said, but is a mere 
symbol required by usage and the grammatical peculiarities 
of the English language. 

In Spanish the case is different. Every grammatical sub¬ 
ject denotes a real subject —something thought of; and verbs 
that, like llover, to rain, have no logical subject, have no 
grammatical subject either. The indefinite English it has 
absolutely no equivalent in Spanish, and it rains is rendered 
simply by llueve, rains. 

12. Conjugation of Subjectless Verbs. —These verbs 
occur only in the infinitive, the gerund, and the third persons 
singular, both in simple and in compound tenses. In these 
forms, they follow the rules of conjugation applying to other 
verbs, whether regular or irregular. Thus, llover, to rain, 
which belongs to the second class of irregulars, is conjugated 
like mover, to move (see Part 7). 


Gerund 

Indicative present 
Indicative preterit 
Indicative copreterit 
Compound present 


lloviendo, raining 

llueve, it rains 

llovio, it rained 

llovla, it was raining 

ha llovido, it has rained , etc. 


13. Other Subjectless Verbs Denoting Natural 
Phenomena.—There are few verbs that in their ordinary 




§23 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


5 


acceptance are constructed 
denote natural phenomena. 

amanecer, to dawn 
anochecer, to become night 
escampar, to stop raining 
granizar, to hail 
lielar, to freeze 
llover, to rain 


without a subject. They all 
The most important are: 

lloviznar, to sprinkle, to drizzle 
relampaguear, to lighten 
tronar, to thunder 
ventear, to blow (said of the 
wind) 


When the gerund or infinitive of a subjectless verb is 
governed by another verb, the latter is likewise constructed 
without a subject, even if it is not ordinarily so constructed. 

The following examples will serve to illustrate the use of 
subjectless verbs: 


iCree usted que manana lloverd? 

Cuando amanecu 5, ensillamos los 
caballos y continuamos nuestro 
viaje. 

Ayer no vine d verte porque es- 
taba nevando. 

El periodico dice que esta noche 
va a helar. 

Si continua venteando , tendre- 
mos que regresar d la costa. 

<;Ha visto usted nevar algunavez? 
— No, senor; aqui no nieva 
nunca. 

I A que hora comenzo a tronar? 

Aun no habia anochecido cuando 
entramos d la bahia. 


Do you think it will rain to¬ 
morrow? 

When it dawned, we saddled the 
horses and continued our jour¬ 
ney. 

I did not come to see you yester¬ 
day because it was snowing. 

The newspaper says that it is 
going to freeze tonight. 

If it continues to blow {or, If the 
wind continues to blow), we 
shall have to return to the 
coast. 

Have you ever seen it snow? —No, 
sir; it never snows here. 

At what time did it begin to 
thunder? 

Night had not yet set in {more 
literally, It had not yet become 
night), when we went into the 
bay. 


14. By an extension of meaning, some of these verbs 
may admit a subject, and often an accusative. They can 
then be used in all persons, tenses, and modes. 


Los piratas llovieron golpes sobre 
el pobre cautivo. 

Tu, Senor, llueves sobre justos y 
pecadores. 


The pirates showered blows upon 
the poor captive. 

Thou, Lord, rainst upon the in¬ 
nocent and the guilty. 






6 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§23 


De nada sirvio que el orador 
tronase contra los monopolios. 
Jehova llovio mana para calmar 
el hambre de su pueblo. 


It was of no avail that the orator 
thundered against monopolies. 
Jehovah rained manna to allay 
the hunger of his people. 


15. Arnanecer and anocliecer very often take a subject, 
and are conjugated as verbs of full inflection. They are 
then followed by a modifying word, with which they indicate 
the condition or position of the subject at daybreak or night¬ 
fall, as the case may be. Constructions of this kind have to 
be translated more or less freely. In making a proper trans¬ 
lation one should be guided by the literal translation: 
when applied to a subject, arnanecer literally means to be 
(said of the subject) at daybreak , and anocliecer means to be 
(said of the subject) at nightfalls 

Amaneci enfermo. | Daybreak found me ill. 


This sentence may be rendered, / awoke ill , or / was taken 
ill this morning , or in some other similar manner, according 
to circumstances. It should be borne in mind that the 
literal rendering is, I was ill when it dawned. 


Creo que manana anocheceremos 
en el puerto. 

<;Que tal amaneciste? (A question 
often asked a sick person .) 

El camino amanecio impasable. 

Recuerda que quien anochece rico 
puede arnanecer en la miseria. 


I think we shall be at the port to¬ 
morrow at nightfall. 

How are you this morning? 

In the morning, the road had 
become impassable. 

Remember that he who goes to 
sleep rich may awaken in desti¬ 
tution ( more literally , Remem-' 
ber that he who is rich when 
night sets in, may be in destitu¬ 
tion when day breaks). 


The expressions amanecio Dios , amanecio el dia , which liter¬ 
ally mean God dawned , the day dawned, are idiomatic forms 
having the same meaning as amanecio, it dawned , the day 
broke. 


16. There are many verbs that, although not restricted 
to the subjectless construction, are used without a subject 




§23 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


7 


when they refer to the events or aspects of nature. Such 
are temblar, to tremble , and estar, to be , in the following 
examples: 


El temblor no se sintio aquf, pero 
de Guatemala me escriben que 
all! temblo dos dias a intervalos 
frecuentes. 

Me parece que tiembla. 

Creo que hoy llovera, pues estd 
muy nublado. 

Aun estaba de noche cuando 
partimos. 

Como estaba tan oscuro, perdimos 
el camino. 


The earthquake was not felt here, 
but they write me from Guate¬ 
mala that there it trembled for 
two days at frequent intervals. 

It seems to me that it is trembling. 

I think it will rain today, for it is 
very cloudy. 

It was still night when we started. 

As it was so dark, we lost our 
way. 


It will be remarked, as a further anomaly of the subject¬ 
less construction, that adjectives occur in it that do not 
modify or refer to any determinate substantive, either 
expressed or understood. 


17. Dar and Ser Applied to the Hour of Day. —With 
reference to the hour of day, dar means to strike , and is used 
without a grammatical subject, but in the third person plural, 
instead of the third person singular. The phrase denoting 
the hour is treated as the accusative of the verb, and is 
therefore represented by an accusative case. As with other 
subjectless verbs, the infinitive and the gerund of dar form 
subjectless verbal expressions with verbs governing them. 


Aun no han dado las tres. 

&Han dado las cuatro ya? 

Cuando dieron las once, dimos la 
serial. 

Acaban de dar la una. 

Van a dar las dos. 

&Han dado las cuatro? —No, pero 
pronto las daran. 

^Hablan dado la una cuando 
ustedes llegaron? —No, pero 
iban a aforla. 


It has not yet struck three. 

Has it struck four already? 

When it struck eleven, we gave 
the signal. 

It has just struck one. 

It is about to strike two. 

Has it struck four? —No, but it 
will soon. 

Had it struck one when you 
arrived? —No, but it was about 
to strike it. 


18. When ser is applied to the hour of day, it is not 
properly a subjectless verb: it agrees in number with the 




8 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


23 


phrase indicating the hour, which must be considered as its 
grammatical subject. 


Cuando desembarc&mos eran las 
cuatro de la manana. 

En mi reloj es la una. 

Van a ser las siete. 

Vaa ser la una y media. 


When we landed it was four 
o’clock in the morning. 

By my watch it is one o’clock. 

It is very near seven o’clock ( liter¬ 
ally , It is going to be seven). 

It is very near half past one. 


Ser has no subject, either expressed or understood, in the 
sentences, Es tarde. It is late , and Es temprano, It is 
early. 


19. Rendering of the Expressions It Is I, Etc. 
Expressions of this kind, in which the indefinite it is the sub¬ 
ject of the verb is, and this verb is followed or preceded by a 
predicate substantive, are rendered by making the Spanish 
equivalent of that substantive the subject of the sentence. 


^Quien es? —Yo soy. 
iQuienestd ahi? —Somos nosotros. 
<jQui6n trajo la noticia? —Creo que 
fueron unos ingenieros que 
acaban de llegar de Nicaragua. 
Elios fueron quienes me lodijeron. 


Who is it? —It is I. 

Who is there? —It is we. 

Who brought the news? —I think 
it was some engineers who have 
just arrived from Nicaragua. 

It was they who told it to me. 


20. Remark on Elliptical Sentences. — Sentences in 
which the subject of the verb is understood, but not 
expressed, should not be confounded with subjectless con¬ 
structions. Thus, in the expression As! es. That is so, the 
tacit subject is ello or eso, the complete form of the sentence 
being, Ello es asi, or Eso es asi. Similarly, Es lastima, It 
is a pity , stands for Eso es Idstima, or Ello es Idstima; &nd 
Basta, That is sufficient, stands for Eso basta. Sentences of 
this kind always refer to a previous statement, which may 
be represented by a neuter pronoun; and when no pronoun 
is expressed, it is understood. 


21. Hacer Applied to tlie State of the Weather. 
The condition of the weather is often expressed by means of 
a subjectless sentence consisting of the verb hacer and a sub¬ 
stantive or substantive phrase denoting that condition. This 




§23 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


9 


substantive or phrase is treated as the accusative of hacer, 
and should therefore be referred to by an accusative case. 


Hace calor; Hace frio. 

Hoy ha hecho muy mal tiem- 
po. 

&Ha hecho calor aqui hoy? —Si, 
senor, lo ha hecho. 

Ayer no hi 20 sol. 

Espero que manana haga buen 
tlia, pues, si no lo hace, no 
podremos ir al campo. 

Anoehe n 6hizo frio aqui. — En la 
ciudad lo hizo. 

iQue tal tiempo ha hecho en Ca¬ 
racas?— hecho muy malo. 


It is warm; It is cold. 

The weather has been very bad 
tocjay ( more literally, It has 
been very bad weather today). 

Has it been warm here today? — 
Yes, sir, it has been. 

The sun did not shine yesterday 
{more literally, It was not sunny 
yesterday). 

I hope it will be a good day to¬ 
morrow, for, if it is not, we shall 
not be able to go to the country. 

It was not cold here last night.— 
In the city, it was. 

How has the weather been in 
Caracas? —It has been very bad. 


This construction will be better understood by considering 
the literal meaning of hacer, which is to make. Thus, the 
literal rendering of the fourth example given above is, Has 
it made heat here today f — Yes, sir, it has made it. As the 
word or phrase following hacer is of the nature of a substan¬ 
tive, it admits no other modifiers than adjectives or adjectival 
phrases. In the equivalent English construction, in which 
to be is followed by an adjective, only adverbial modifiers are 
permissible. When the accusative of hacer is singular and is 
modified by an adjective not denoting quantity or intensity, 
the adjective should follow, and the indefinite article should 
precede, that accusative. 


Hace mucho calor. 

Hoy ha hecho poco viento. 

Ayer hizo aqui un frio insoportable. 


It is very warm. 

It has not been very windy today 
{more literally, It has been little 
windy today). 

It was unbearably cold here yes¬ 
terday. 


Remark. —Another important form of construction in which the 
verb to be followed by an adjective is rendered by a Spanish transitive 
verb followed by an accusative, is that serving to express such sensa¬ 
tions as hunger, thirst, sleepiness, and the like. For this purpose, 
tener, to have , is used, as in the following examples: 




10 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


23 


Tengo liambre; Tengo sed. 
Cuando lleg&mos, teniamos mu- 
cho sueno , y-nos acostamos. 


I am hungry; I am thirsty. 

When we arrived, we were very 
sleepy, and went to bed. 


Sentir, to feel , is also often used in the same sense, especially with 
calor and frio. 


Siento muclio calor. I I feel very warm. 

Siento muclio frio. | I feel very cold. 


It should be constantly borne in mind that in all such expressions 
as these, frio , like calor, hambre, and sueno , is a substantive. The sen¬ 
tences I am cold, I am hungry, etc. cannot be literally translated. With 
reference to inanimate objects, in which temperature, not sensation, is 
expressed, the Spanish construction is similar to the English. 

El cuarto esta muy caliente. I The room is very hot. 

La comida estaba fria. \ The dinner was cold. 


22. Hacer Applied to Time Elapsed. — Used as a sub¬ 
jectless verb applied to the course of time, hacer means to 
have elapsed , although its grammatical construction is different 
from that of the compound form liaber trascurrido — literal 
translation of the English form just mentioned. It is always 
either followed or preceded by an expression denoting the 
interval elapsed, and marks the end of that interval. The 
tense of hacer indicates whether the expiration of the interval 
considered is present, past, or future. (When the end of an 
interval of time is referred to as being present , the idea to be 
conveyed is that the interval extends to the time of speak¬ 
ing, and no further). 

1. If the beginning of the interval is expressed by a verb 
(which, for convenience, will here be referred to as the 
predicating verb) , and the action, fact, or event denoted by 
that verb does not extend through the interval, hacer is 
placed in the present or in the future, according as the end 
of the interval is present or future (examples 1 to 4, below); 
in the copreterit, if the end of the interval is presented as 
coexisting with a past event (examples 5 and 6); in the pre¬ 
terit, if the end of the interval is past, and is mentioned 
without reference to any other past event (example 7). The 
predicating verb is placed in the preterit (examples 1 to 4, 
and 7), or in the copreterit, if hacer is in the present, the 
future, or the preterit; the copreterit denoting a continued, 
a repeated or an habitual action or state (examples 8 and 9). 



§23 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


11 


If hacer is in the copreterit, the predicating verb should be 
in the compound copreterit (examples 5, 6, and 9). When 
the predicating verb follows hacer , it should be preceded by 
que , which in this case may be rendered by since; when the 
predicating verb precedes hacer , que is omitted: the present 
hace may then be rendered by ago, and the copreterit hacia 
by previously or before. The two forms are equivalent and 
therefore interchangeable, although the form with qice is 
more common. 

The foregoing explanations may be summed up as follows: 
hacer. . . que is rendered by to be . . . since , with the indefinite 
it as subject of to be. 


1 

Hace dos semanas que recibitnos 
esta carta. 

Recibitnos esta carta hace dos 
semanas. 


Hace media hora que don Juan 
estuvo aqui. 

Don Juan estuvo aqui hace media 
hora. 

3 

Hoy hace una semana que el va¬ 
por naufragb. 

El vapor naufrago hoy hace una 
semana. 

4 

Manana hard un mes que lle- 
gamos de Chile. 

Llegatnos de Chile manana hard 
un mes. 


Hacia dos semanas que habia- 
tnos recibido la carta. 

Habiamos recibido la carta hacia 
dos semanas. 


It is two weeks since we received 
this letter. 

We received this letter two weeks 
ago. 

It is half an hour since Mr. John 
was here. 

Mr. John was here half an hour 
ago. 


It is a week today since the steamer 
was wrecked. 

The steamer was wrecked a week 
ago today. 


It will be a month tomorrow since 
we arrived from Chile. 


It was two weeks since we had 
received the letter. 

We had received the letter two 
weeks previously. 








12 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§23 


6 

Hacia seis raeses que habiamos 
principiado nuestros estudios,. 

Habiamos principiado nuestros 
estudios hacia seis meses. 

7 

Ayer hizo cien anos que se de- 
claro la independencia. 

La independencia se declarP ayer 
hizo cien anos. 

8 

Hace cinco meses que nosotros 
trabajdbarnos en ese almacen. 

Nosotros trabajdbarnos en ese al- 
maqpn hace cinco meses. 

9 

Hacia cinco meses que nosotros 
habiamos estado trabajando en 
ese almacen. 

Nosotros habiamos estado traba¬ 
jando en ese almacen hacia 
cinco meses. 


It was six months since we had 
begun our studies. 

We had begun our studies six 
months previously. 


It was a hundred years yesterday 
since independence was de¬ 
clared. 


It is five months since we were 
working in that store. 

We used to work in that store five 
months ago. 


It was five months since we had 
been working in that store. 

We had been working in that 
store five months previously. 


The phrase denoting the time elapsed is often placed 
before hacer. 

Dos semanas hace que recibimos esta carta. — Recibimos esta 
carta dos semanas hace. 


2. If the action, condition, or eyent indicated by the 
predicating verb is continued through the interval consid¬ 
ered, hacer may be in the same tenses as in the preceding 
case, according to circumstances. The predicating verb should 
be in the copreterit if hacer is in that tense, or if the interval 
does not include the present; otherwise, in the present. 
Only the construction with que will be given here, although 
the other is equally proper. For the translation of these 
forms, hacer... q^^e followed by a predicating verb may be 
considered as equivalent to to have followed by the participle 
of the corresponding English verb. 







23 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


13 


Hace diez dias que vivimos en 
este hotel. 

Manana hard un raes que es/a- 
mos en este pais. 

Ayer hizo tres anos que negocia- 
mos en maquinaria. 

Cuando nuestra firma quebro, 
hacia dos anos que perdiamos 
considerablemente. 

Cuando las provisiones llegaron, 
hacia mas de un mes que los 
soldados no comian carne. 

Hace como quince dias que no 
le veo. 

Hacia un ano que no sabiamos 
de nuestro hijo. 

The difference between thi 
ered under 1 is illustrated 
examples: 

I Hace dos horas que estoy aqui. 
[Hace dos horas que estuve aqui. 
'Hace dos anos que trabajo en el 
istmo. 

Hace dos anos que trabaje en el 
. istmo. 

'Hacia un dia que el enemigo 
bombardeaba la ciudad. 

Hacia un dia que el enemigo 
. habia boinbardeado la ciudad. 


We have lived in this hotel ten 
days. 

We shall have been in this coun¬ 
try a month tomorrow. 

We have been dealing in machin¬ 
ery three years yesterday. 

When our firm failed, we had 
been losing considerably for two 
years. 

When the provisions arrived, the 
soldiers had not eaten meat for 
more than a month ( that is , the 
soldiers had gone without meat 
for over a month). 

I have not seen him in about a 
fortnight. 

We had not heard from our son 
in a year. 

use of hacer and that consid- 
by the following pairs of 

fl have been here two hours. 

\l was here two hours ago. 

I have been working in the 
Isthmus two years. 

I worked in the Isthmus two 
. years ago. 

The enemy had been bombard¬ 
ing the city for a day. 

The enemy had bombarded the 
. city a day previously. 


The following form of construction is also permissible and 
not uncommon, although the preposition desde, since, is 
really superfluous, and may be omitted: 


Vivimos en este hotel desde hace 
diez dias. 

Manana hard un mes desde que 
estamos en este pais. 


We have lived in this hotel ten 
days ( more literally, since ten 
days ago). 

We shall have been in this country 
a month tomorrow ( more liter¬ 
ally, since a month ago to¬ 
morrow) . 









14 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§23 



3. If the beginning- of the interval is expressed by a sub¬ 
stantive phrase, this phrase is connected with hacer by the 
preposition desde, since , in the manner illustrated by the 
following examples: 


El martes hard seis meses desde 
la formacion de la compania. 

Hoy hace tres anos desde la 
abolicidn de la esclavitud. 


It will be six months next Tues¬ 
day since the forming of the 
company. 

It is three years today since the 
abolition of slavery. 


4. In all cases not specified above, hace has an adverbial 
value equivalent to the English ago. 


Ese estado de cosas duro hasta 
hace un ano. 

La enemistad entre los dos paises 
data de muchos siglos hace. 

Cuba pertenecio a Espana hasta 
hace unos dos anos. 


That state of things lasted till a 
year ago. 

The enmity between the two 
countries dates from many cen¬ 
turies ago ( or , back). 

Cuba belonged to Spain until 
some two years ago. 


23. ElllpticalExpressions With Hacer. —The phrases 
mucho tiempo, a long lime; mucho rato, a long while, are 
frequently used with hacer in expressions like the following: 


Hace mucho tiempo que no 
le veo. 

Hacia mucho rato que la 
aguardabamos a ella. 


I have not seen him in a long 
time. 

We had been waiting for her a 
long while. 


Either the adjective mucho or the substantives tiempo , rato 
may be omitted, being understood. 

Hace mucho 1 

TT . }que no le veo 
Hace tiempo J 

Hacia mucho 1 

Hacia rato ( Q ue * a aguardabamos 

Likewise, the adjective muchos, many , may be omitted 
before dias, anos , etc. 

I Hace muchos dias que no le 
veo. 

Hace dias que no le veo. 


I have not seen him for many 
days. 

I have not seen him in days. 






§23 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


15 


Hacia muchos anos que no 
nos escribia. 

Hacia anos que no nos escribia. 


He had not written to us for 
many years. 

He had not written to us in 
years. 


24. Haber as a Subjectless Verb.—As a subjectless 
verb, haber is employed: 

1« With reference to time elapsed, under exactly the 
same circumstances and with the same meanings as hacer. 
Its inflection is then the same as that of the auxiliary haber , 
except that the third person singular of the indicative present 
is customarily written with an accent mark over the a: hd. 
This form is generally placed after the phrase indicating the 
interval elapsed. 


Manana habra un ano que me 
case. 

Dos ano hd que no sal go. 

El vapor salio cuatro horas hd. 

Un ano habia que Colon habla 
descubierto la isla. 


It will be a year tomorrow since 
I married. 

I have not gone out in two years. 
The steamer left four hours ago. 
It was a year since Columbus had 
discovered the island. 


2. In the sense of there to be. As with other subjectless 
verbs, only the infinitive, the gerund, and the third persons 
singular are used. These forms are the same as those of the 
auxiliary haber , except the third person singular of the indic¬ 
ative present, which is hay instead of ha. Besides the 
simple forms, the subjectless haber has compound forms 
obtained by combining its participle habido with the third 
persons of the auxiliary haber. 

The substantive or phrase that in English serves as the 
subject of {there) to be is treated in Spanish as the accusative 
of haber , being therefore represented by an accusative case. 
The accusative case of generalization (see Part 4) is much 
used with this subjectless verb. To every singular form of 
haber (and no plural forms are used without a subject) cor¬ 
respond one singular and one plural form of to be: which one 
to use depends on the grammatical number of the subject of 
the English verb. Thus, hay means either there is or there 
are; bubo, either there was or there were; ha habido, either 
there has been or there have been. 




16 

dCu&ntos teatros hay en Rio de 
Janeiro? 

En Nueva-York hay un parque 
muy grande llamado el Parque 
Central. 

Ayer hubo una corrida de toros en 
Granada. 

El mes entrante habra un eclipse 
de luna. 

Este ano ha habido mucha viruela 
en Puerto Cortez. 

No habiendo razones suficientes 
para extender el plazo, el go- 
bierno rechazo la proposicion de 
los peticionarios. 

En aquel ano habia habido muchos 
desordenes en los departamentos 
meridionales. 

Es probable que rnanana haya no- 
ticias de Buenos-Aires. 

No crei que aqui hubiese tantas 
cotnodidades para viajar. 

iHa habido muchos incendios aqui 
esta semana? —TjOS ha habido, 
y muy desastrosos. 

En la antigiiedad hubo sin duda 
muchos grandes hombres, pero 
los hay mas grandes en nues- 
tros dias. 

iCudnta distancia hay de aqui a 
Barcelona? —Puede haber cinco 
6 seis leguas. 


§23 

How many theaters are there in 
Rio Janeiro? 

There is a very large park in New 
York called Central Park. 

There was a bull fight in Granada 
yesterday. 

There will be an eclipse of the 
moon next month. 

There has been a great deal of 
smallpox in Puerto Cortez this 
year. 

There being no sufficient reasons 
forextending the time, the gov¬ 
ernment rejected the petitioners’ 
proposition. 

There had been many disturb¬ 
ances in the southern depart¬ 
ments that year. 

It is likely that tomorrow there will 
be news from Buenos Ayres. 

I did not think there were so 
many traveling comforts here. 

Have there been many fires here 
this week? —There have been, 
and very disastrous ones. 

There were no doubt many great 
men in antiquity, but there are 
greater in our days. 

What is the distance from here to 
Barcelona? —It may be five or 
six leagues. 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


When referring to distance, the word distancia is often 
omitted, being understood; but then the interrogative adjec¬ 
tive cuanta is changed to the neuter form cudnto. The 
phrase cudnto hay is then better rendered by how far is it. 


$Cudnto hay de Paris k Berlin? 

De Nueva-York k San Luis hay 
menos (that is, wienos distancia ) 
que de Chicago k San Fran¬ 
cisco. 


How far is it from Paris to 
Berlin? 

The distance from New York to 
St. Louis is less than from Chi¬ 
cago to San Francisco. 





§23 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


17 


3. Followed by que, in the 

Habra que abrir un tunel b traves 
de la montana. 

Hay que proceder con cautela. 
Hubo que arrojar todo el carga- 
mento al mar. 


sense of to be necessary. 

It will be necessary to open a 
tunnel through the mountain. 

It is necessary to act with caution. 
It was necessary to throw all the 
cargo into the sea. 


This construction should not be confounded with that in 
which a phrase consisting of que and an infinitive follows a 
substantive or substantive phrase serving as the accusative 
of haber. This verb then means there to be , and que is trans¬ 
lated by to. 

Hay mucho que hacer. I There is much to do. 

Habia varios otros puntos que \ There were several other points to 
considerar. \ be considered. 


In interrogative sentences, the accusative usually precedes 
haber , whether this verb means to be necessary or there to be. 
The meaning is always indicated by the context or the 
circumstances. 

$Qul hay que ver en esta ciudad? What is there to see {or, to be 

seen) in this city? 

Que hay que hacer hoy? What is there to do {or, to be 

done) today? {or, What must 
be done today?) 


IMPERSONAL VERBS AND CONSTRUCTIONS 

25. Definitions. —An impersonal sentence is a sen¬ 
tence having a proposition, an infinitive or an infinitive 
phrase for its subject. The principal verb in an impersonal 
sentence is said to be used impersonally , and the form of the 
sentence is often referred to as an impersonal construction. 
In English, the grammatical subject of an impersonal 
sentence is usually the indefinite pronoun it. 

26. Impersonal Verbs.— Verbs that are used only in 
the third person are called impersonal verbs. Subjectless 
verbs belong to this class. Other impersonal verbs are often, 
but not always, used in personal constructions. Among 





18 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§23 


them may be mentioned acaecer, acontocer, suceder, all 
of which mean to happen; convenir, to be advisable , well , 
or important; importar, to be important ; and parecer, to 
seem. In the first of each of the following pairs of examples, 
these verbs are used impersonally, as will be seen by apply¬ 
ing to the subjects (printed in Italic) the definition given in 
the last article: 


Acace k menudo que un mat 
ciudada.no es un buen sold ado. 

i 

Eso acaecio en el siglo diez y 
. ocho. 

Acontecio que el capitan del 
buque era hermano del pri- 
sionero. 

• iComqha acontecido eso? 
Ahora conviene qrie tratemos 

de recuperar nuestro credilo . 

• En las actuates circunstancias, 

una medida de esa clase no 
convendria. 

Importa no publicar estos 
datos todavia. 

Eso no importa. 

Parece que alguien toca a la 
puerta. 

Su explicacion parece ridlcula. 


It often happens that a bad citi¬ 
zen is a good soldier. 

That happened in the eighteenth 

. century. 

It happened that the captain of 
the ship was a brother of the 
prisoner. 

How has that happened? 

It is now important that we en¬ 
deavor to regain our credit. 

• In the present circumstances, a 
measure of that kind would 
not be advisable. 

It is important not to publish 
these data yet. 

That does not matter. 

It seems that some one is knock¬ 
ing at the door. 

Your explanation seems ridicu¬ 
lous. 


27. Other Verbs Used Impersonally. —Many verbs, 
besides those that are essentially impersonal, are susceptible 
of being employed impersonally. For instance, causar, 
to catise, is thus employed in the following sentence: 


Mucha pena me causo ver el 
lamentable estado en que los dos 
huerfanitos se encontraban. 


It caused me great pain to see the 
lamentable state in which the 
two little orphans were. 


There is nothing peculiar about these constructions, except 
that, as has been previously stated, the indefinite English 
it has no Spanish equivalent. Some impersonal uses of 
ser were adverted to in Part 6, in connection with the sub¬ 
junctive mode. 













23 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


19 


PRIMARY MEANINGS OF THE TENSES 


THE PROGRESSIVE FORM 

28. A phrase consisting of estar, to be, followed by the 
gerund of another verb is called the progressive form of 
that other verb. When estar enters a combination of this 
sort, it is called an auxiliary (that is, helping ) verb, as its 
function is then to aid in the construction of forms of other 
verbs. Any tense of estar may be followed by the gerund; 
and the tense of the combination is the same as that of the 
auxiliary. Thus, estoy hablando, lam speaking , is present, 
and estaremos pescando, we shall be fishing, is future. 

The progressive form, which is of much more frequent 
application in English than in Spanish, exhibits the action 
or fact denoted by the verb as continued through a certain 
interval of time, whether specified or not. 


THE SIMPLE INDICATIVE TENSES 

29. Introduction. — Every proposition, whether it forms 
a complete sentence or not, contains one verbal time form, 
which, either by itself or with other words, constitutes the 
predicate of the proposition. Thus, in the complex sentence, 
El me dijo que pronto volveria, He told me that he would 
soon return , there are two propositions; namely, el me dijo, 
and que pronto volveria: predicate of the first, me dijo; 
predicate of the second, pronto 'volveria . The predicate of 
the whole expression, considered as one complex sentence, 
is me dijo que pronto volveria. 

When, in dealing with a verbal form, reference is made to 
the predicate, it should be understood that the predicate 
considered is that of the proposition to which the verbal 
fprm belongs, whether that proposition forms a complete 
sentence or not. This mode of referring to verbal forms is 
here adopted for shortness; but, if the student prefers, he 
may substitute the expression “that which is denoted by the 




20 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§23 


verb” for the expression “the predicate.” In dealing with 
the meanings and uses of the tenses, it is immaterial which 
of these expressions is employed. 

30. Primary Meanings of the Tenses of Coexist¬ 
ence. —The present and copreterit will here be called tenses 
of coexistence, because they are primarily employed to 
indicate the coexistence of the predicate with another fact or 
event, either expressed or understood. The present indi¬ 
cates that the predicate coexists with the moment of speak¬ 
ing; the copreterit, that the predicate coexisted with a past 
event. Hence the name of the latter tense — a name that 
means coexisting preterit , or preterit of coexistence. These 
fundamental meanings of the tenses of coexistence were 
explained in Part 2, to which the student is referred. It only 
remains to be added here that by coexistence of the predicate 
with an event is not meant that the two are of equal dura¬ 
tion; but simply that the event in question takes or took 
place during the existence or occurrence of that which is 
denoted by the verb in the predicate. 

Alguien toca k la puerta. Some pne knocks at the door. 

Alguien tocaba k la puerta cuando Some one was knocking at the 

yo despertA | door when I awoke. 

In the first of these examples, the form toca presents the 
action of tocar, to knock , as taking place at the moment of 
speaking; but it does not imply that that action has not been 
taking place before, nor that it will not continue after that 
moment. In the second example, the form tocaba expresses 
that the action was taking place when I awoke, without any 
implication as to its previous or its subsequent duration. 

31. When, as in the two sentences given above, the verb 
in the predicate denotes a transitory condition of the subject, 
continued during a shorter or longer time, both the present 
and the copreterit may be replaced by the correspond¬ 
ing progressive forms: toca by estd toca?ido , and tocaba by 
estaba tocando. In English, the progressive form is almost 
exclusively used under such circumstances, especially to 



23 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


21 


render the Spanish copreterit, 
examples: 

iDe que habla usted? 1 

iDe que esta usted hablando? J 
i De que hablaban ustedes cuando' 
nosotros entramos? 

<;De que estaban ustedes hablan¬ 
do cuando nosotros entramos? _ 
El congreso discute ahora los' 
derechos de aduana. 

El congreso esta ahora discu- 
tiendo los derechos de aduana. 

El congreso discutia (or, estaba 
discutiendo) el ultimatum de los 
Estados Unidos cuando se de¬ 
clare la guerra. 

Yo vivo (or, estoy viviendo) ahora 
en Berlin. 

Yo vivia (or, estaba viviendo') en- 
tonces en Berlin. 


The following are additional 


What are you talking about? 

What were you talking about 
when we came in? 


Congress is now discussing cus¬ 
tom-house duties. 

Congress was discussing the Uni¬ 
ted States ultimatum when 
war was declared. 

I am now living in Berlin. 

I was then living in Berlin. 


32. The tenses of coexistence serve to express what is 
permanent, and are of frequent occurrence in describing 
natural laws and inherent properties. In this office, only the 
simple forms are employed, the progressive forms not being 
admissible. This follows from the very meaning of the 
verb estar, in which the idea of transitoriness is generally 
implied (see Part 2). The Spanish present is then rendered 
by the English present, and the Spanish copreterit, by the 
English preterit (called past indefinite in English grammar). 


La tierra gira al rededor del sol. 

Newton probo que todos los cuer- 
pos caian en el vacio con la mis- 
ma velocidad. 


The earth revolves around the 
sun. 

Newton proved that all bodies fell 
in vacuum with the same veloc¬ 
ity. 


In the second example, the copreterit caian, fell , might 
be very properly replaced with the present caen, fall. The 
latter form would be a more emphatic statement of the per¬ 
manency of the law in question; but, on the other hand, the 
copreterit, by presenting the predicate as coexistent with 
the time of Newton’s demonstration, draws the attention 






22 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


23 


more vividly to the work of the investigator and refers 
more directly the discovery to him: the present seems to 
make prominent the fact that the predicate states a law 
known to us, regardless of its discoverer; the copreterit, the 
fact that the discovery was made by Newton —that he was 
the first to see the law and make it known: the present 
states the law as we. see it, so to speak; the copreterit, as 
Newton saw it. 


33. Application of the Tenses of Coexistence to 
Express Habitual or Repeated Actions or Conditions. 
When serving these purposes, the Spanish present is 
rendered by the English present, and the copreterit by the 
preterit, or more generally, by the phrase used to followed 


by the infinitive of the verb. 

( El mddico viene a verme todos 
los dias. 

El medico venia a verme todos 
los dias. 

{ La Russell canta en el teatro Me- 
tropolitano. 

La Russell cantaba en el teatro 
Metropolitano. 

{ Nosotros descontamos letras so- 
bre Francia e Inglaterra. 
Nosotros descontabamos letras 
sobre Francia 4 Inglaterra. 

( Nuestra firma importa platanos 
y naranjas. 

Nuestra firma import aba pldta- 
nos y naranjas. 


{ The physician comes to see me 
every day. 

The physician came {or, used to 
come) to see me every day. 

{ Miss Russell sings at the Metro¬ 
politan theater. 

Miss Russell used to sing at the 
Metropolitan theater. 

{ We discount drafts on France 
and England. 

We used to discount drafts on 
France and England. 

Our firm imports bananas and 
oranges. 

Our firm used to import bananas 
and oranges. 


34. The copreterit, when employed by itself as in the 
last article, usually implies that the fact or condition denoted 
by the verb took place in the past, and continued for a 
shorter or longer time, but has ceased to exist. Such is the 
implication in the examples just given, and in these: 


Don Juan era muy rico, pero ya 
no lo es. 

El profesor Cervera y yo eramos 
muy amigos. 


Mr. John used to be very rich, 
but he is so no longer. 

Professor Cervera and I used to 
be great friends. 





§23 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


23 


A mi me fiaban en el almacen de 
Narvaez y Compania, pero ya 
no me fian. 


They used to trust me at Narvaez 
and Company’s store, but they 
no longer do so. 


35. Tlie Tenses of Posteriority.—The future and the 
postpreterit will here be called tenses of posteriority, as 
their primary use is to indicate the posteriority of the 
predicate to some special time or event, either expressed 
or understood. The future exhibits the predicate as subse¬ 
quent to the time of speaking; the postpreterit, as subse¬ 
quent to a past time or event. Hence the name of the latter 
tense —a name meaning after a preterit , that is, after some¬ 
thing past. These two tenses are rendered into English by 
means of the auxiliaries will and shall for the future, and 
would and should for the postpreterit —auxiliaries having no 
literal Spanish equivalents. 


El sabado que viene saldremos 
para San Juan. 

El consul le dara a usted la fac- 
tura consular esta tarde. 

Espana no creyo que los Estados 
Unidos intervendrian. 

Antier le dijimos a su tenedor de 
libros que enviariamos la cuenta 
detallada & principios de la 
semana entrante. 


We shall leave for San Juan next 
Saturday. 

The consul will give you the con¬ 
sular invoice this afternoon. 

Spain did not think that the 
United States would interfere. 

We told your bookkeeper yester¬ 
day that we would send the 
itemized bill in the early part 
of next week. 


For other explanations relating to the postpreterit, the 
student is referred to Part 2. 


36. Tlie Preterit.—This tense exhibits the predicate as 
an absolutely past event, without any reference to its dura¬ 
tion, to its coexistence with other past events, or to any 
other interval of time that is not wholly past. 


Colon descubrib la America. 

Milton escribio “ El Paraiso per- 
dido.” 

Ayer tarde fuinios al campo. 

Anoche estuvimos en el teatro. 

Cuando el tigre salio del bosque, 
el cazador disparb sobre el: la 
fiera rugio y cayo muerta. 


Columbus discovered America. 
Milton wrote “Paradise Lost.” 

We went to the country yesterday 
afternoon. 

We were at the theater last night. 
When the tiger came out of the 
woods, the hunter fired oh him: 
the beast roared and fell dead. 





24 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§23 


37. Distinction Between tlie Preterit and tlie 
Copreterit. —The difference between the copreterit and the 
preterit is that the former presents the predicate as a con¬ 
tinued or repeated action or condition, while the latter 
presents it simply as an accomplished fact: the former 
describes the predicate as a sort of process, the latter as 
something completed. This difference is further illustrated 
by the following examples: 

Napoleon escribia sus campanas. Napoleon used to write his cam¬ 
paigns. 

Napoledn escribio sus campanas. Napoleon wrote his campaigns. 


In the first sentence, Napoleon’s writing is referred to as 
an habitual action, the implication being that he had the 
custom of writing his military operations as they occurred. 
In the second sentence, reference is made to Napoleon’s 
having completed certain writings, without any implication 
as to the time or the manner in which he did the work. 


Yo dormia mientras el escribia. 


Anoche dormi en el hotel Con¬ 
tinental. 


I slept while he wrote {or, better , I 
was sleeping while he was 
writing). 

I slept in the Continental Hotel 
last night. 


Here the copreterit forms dormia and escribia denote con¬ 
tinued past actions, and it is the intention of the speaker to 
present them as such. The form dormi , on the contrary, 
although it naturally denotes a continued action or condition, 
indicates that the object of the statement is not to call 
attention to this aspect of the action, but simply to its 
having occurred and being absolutely past —to its being an 
accomplished fact. 


Anibal era un gran general. 1 
Anibal fue un gran general./ 


Hannibal was a great general. 


Here era exhibits the predicate as a natural or permanent 
quality possessed by Hannibal while he lived; /&/ directs the 
attention more particularly to the fact that this great general 
no longer exists. 




§23 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


25 


38. In narrative style, the preterit expresses the past 
events forming the subject matter of the narration, while the 
copreterit, from its peculiar properties as a tense of coexist-* 
ence, is employed to express the accompanying circumstances. 


Era medio dia cuando entramos 
en la ciudad. Las calles estaban 
desiertas, y un ayudante a quien 
enviamos al palacio presiden¬ 
tial regresb con la extrana 
noticia de que el palacio ya no 
existia, por haberlo incendiado 
los sitiados antes de evacuar la 
poblacion. 


It was noon when we entered the 
city. The streets were deserted, 
and an aide-de-camp whom we 
sent to the presidential palace 
returned with the strange news 
that the palace no longer existed, 
the besieged having burned it 
before vacating the town. 


THE COMPOUND INDICATIVE TENSES 

39. The Compound Present. —This tense exhibits the 
meaning of the verb as an occurrence that has taken place 
during an interval of time not wholly expired. The occur¬ 
rence in question may itself be entirely past, or may have 
continued to the moment of speaking; but, in either case, 
reference is made to its past, not to its present existence. 

Hoy hemos embarcado cin- We have shipped today fifty boxes 
cuenta cajas de losa francesa. of French china. 


Here the action of shipping is entirely past, but the com¬ 
pound present is employed, because that action took place 
in an interval of time not yet expired; namely, today. If 
the shipping had taken place yesterday, or if the precise time 
of shipping had been specified, the preterit should have been 
used. 


Ayer embarcamos cincuenta 
cajas de losa francesa. 
Embarcamos cincuenta cajas 
de losa francesa hoy a los dos. 


Yesterday we shipped fifty boxes 
of French china. 

We shipped fifty boxes of French 
china at two o’clock today. 


In the following examples, the phenomena denoted by the 
verbs in the compound present may still be occurring, or 
they may have ceased to occur; there is no implication as to 
their actual existence or non-existence; they are simply 






SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§23 


26 


presented as covering either part or the whole of periods of 
time extending to the present: 


Esta semana lia llovido mucho. 
Hoy lia lieclio mucho viento. 

Sometimes the interval of 
understood. 

iCuantas veces ha cruzado usted 
el mar? 


It has rained very much this week. 
It has been very windy today. 

time is not specified, but it is 

I How many times have you crossed 
the ocean? 


Here en su vitla, in your life, is understood. If an 
entirely past interval is specified or understood, the preterit 


should be used. 

.jCuantas veces cruzo usted el 
mar el aho pasado? 
dCu&ntas veces cruzo Colon el 
mar? 


How many times did you cross 
the ocean last year? 

How many times did Columbus 
cross the ocean? 


40. The compound present serves also to describe events 
that have just occurred, the consequences of which are just 
beginning to be felt or realized, or some of the accompanying 
circumstances of which still endure; in short, whenever the 
events described are more or les$ related to the present, pro¬ 
vided the exact time of their occurrence is not specified. 

He perdido cuanto tenia. | 1 have lost all I had. 


This statement would be made by a person who has just 
lost his money, as in a transaction the results of which he 
has just learned, or in an enterprise he has just completed. 


Don Jesus Maria Rodriguez ha I Mr. Jesus Maria Rodriguez is 
muerto. \ dead ( literally , has died). 


This is a common form giving public notice of the demise 
of a person who has just died. 


A person who has just 
properly say: 

He hablaao con el, pero no he 
conseguido que acceda & nuestra 
proposicion. 


spoken to another might 

I have spoken with him, but have 
not succeeded in getting him to 
agree to our proposition. 





23 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


27 


41. The Compound Future and Postpreterit. —The 
compound future indicates the anteriority of the predicate 
with respect to an event posterior to the time of speaking; 
the compound postpreterit, the anteriority of the predicate 
with respect to an event posterior to a past event, expressed 
or understood. 


Manana a las ocho habremos ter- 
minado los preparativos para 
el viaje. 


By eight o’clock tomorrow, we 
shall have finished the prepara¬ 
tions for the journey. 


Here the act of finishing is to take place before the future 
time expressed by mahana a las ocho. 


Me dijo que al otro dia a las ocho 
habria terminado la traduccion. 


He told me that by eight o’clock 
the following day he should have 
finished the translation. 


Here the act of finishing is to precede the time el otro dia 
d las ocho , which is posterior to the past time in which the 
telling ( me dijo) took place. 


42. The Compound Preterit. —This tense is of com¬ 
paratively rare occurrence. It exhibits the meaning of the 
verb as immediately preceding a past event, and generally 
follows a phrase expressing immediate anteriority, such as 
luego que , tan luego como , no bien , asi que , cuando, all of which 
mean when or after , in the sense of as soon as. It can always 
be replaced by the simple preterit, and is often better 
rendered by the English indefinite past (literal equivalent of 
the Spanish simple preterit). 


Luego que hubimos almor- 
zado (or, almorzamos), 
salimos k dar un paseo. 

No bien hubo aparecido (or, 
apareeio) el artlculo, cuando 
el redactor del periodico fue 
reducido k prision. 

Cuando hubo pasado (or, 
paso) la tormenta, continu£- 
mos nuestro viaje. 


When we had breakfasted, we 
went out to take a walk. 

No sooner had the article ap¬ 
peared, than the editor of the 
newspaper was put in prison. 

When the storm was over, we 
continued our journey. 





28 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


23 


43. Occasionally, the compound preterit is used instead 
of the simple, without being preceded by an expression of 
immediate anteriority. The compound form is then 
emphatic, and serves, therefore, only to add force or vivid¬ 
ness to the sentence. 


“Encontro muchas y graves difi- 
cultades en su empresa, pero a 
fuerza de constancia las hubo 
superado todas.” 


“He encountered many and grave 
difficulties in his enterprise, but 
he surmounted them all by dint 
of perseverance.” 


44. Tlie Compound Copreterit. —This form presents 
the meaning of the verb as preceding a past event or speci¬ 
fied time, but without the condition of immediate anteriority. 
In the following examples, the words expressing the past 
event or time are printed in Italic: 


Cuando la fun cion principio, el 
principe liabia ocupado su 
palco. 

Ayer a las Ires y media no liabia 
llegado el vapor. 


When the performance began, the 
prince had occupied his box. 

The steamer had not arrived at 
half past three o’clock yesterday. 


45. In many cases, the compound copreterit bears to the 
past the same relation that the compound present bears to 
the present. As in the latter tense, the action or condition 
denoted by the compound copreterit may not be wholly past 
with respect to the past event or time considered; but the 
compound form particularly refers to the previous duration 
of that action or condition, regardless of whether, at the 
specified time, it continued or not. 


It had rained a great deal that 
day. 

The war had lasted six years. 
That month we had lost more 
than fifty thousand dollars. 

Note. —Other primary uses of the indicative tenses of coexistence, 
both simple and compound, will be given in connection with the tenses 
of the hypothetic mode, and still others in a separate section following 
the treatment of the tenses of the latter mode. 


Aquel dia habia llovido mucho. 

La guerra habia durado seis anos. 
Ese mes habiamos perdido mas de 
cincuenta mil pesos. 





§23 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


29 


TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MODE 

46. Introductory Remark.—The rules for the use of 
the subjunctive were given in Part 6. Here we shall deal 
only with the time relations expressed by the subjunctive 
forms, when these forms are employed in accordance with 
those rules. 


47. The Simple Present. — This tense serves to express 
the time relations that in the indicative are expressed by the 
simple present and the simple future. 


Present Time 


Es probable que su equipaje este 
en la estacion. 

No creo que Inglaterra sea la 
nacion mds poderosa del mundo. 


It is likely that your baggage is 
at the station. 

I do not think England to be the 
most powerful nation in the 
world. 


Future Time 


Es probable que su equipaje 
llegue en el proximo tren. 

No creo que este caballo me lieve 
hasta la poblacion. 


It is likely that your baggage 
will arrive on the next train. 

I do not think this horse will 
carry me as far as the town. 


As explained in Part 6, the present tense of the subjunctive 
is of very frequent occurrence in referring to uncertain or 
contingent future events. In all these cases, it indicates 
future time, and is to be rendered by the English future 
indicative, as in the examples just given. 


48. The Simple Preterit. — This form serves to express 
the same time relations that in the indicative are expressed by 
the simple preterit, the copreterit, and the postpreterit. 


Preterit 

Yo no creo que Bacon fuese (or, 
fuera) el autor de “Hamlet.” 

Yo dudo mucho que los arabes 
inventasen (or, inventaran ) el 
sistema decimal de numeracion. 


Relation 

I do not believe that Bacon was 
the author of “Hamlet.” 

I much doubt that the Arabs in¬ 
vented the decimal system of 
numeration. 





30 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§23 


Copreterit Relation 


No es probable que cuando noso- It is not likely that they were out 
tros llegamos ellos estuviesen of town when we arrived. 

(or, estuvieran) fuera de la 
ciudad. 

Postpreterit Relation 


El superintendente me suplico 
que hablase (or, hablara) con 
usted sobre este asunto. 


The superintendent requested me 
to speak with you about this 
matter. 


49. In general, when the principal verb is in the preterit 
or in the copreterit, the dependent verb, if subjunctive, 
should be in the preterit tense of this mode. 


El ladron me dijo que le diese 
(or, diera) cuanto tuviese 
(or, tuviera). 

No creiamos que la situacidn fue- 
se (or, fuera) tan seria. 


The robber told me to give him 
all I had. 

We did not think that the situa¬ 
tion was so serious. 


If, however, the dependent verb expresses a future event, 
or something that applies to all time, the present subjunctive 
may be used instead of the preterit, although the latter is 
equally proper, and perhaps more so. 


El general ordeno que regresa- 
semos (or, regresaramos) al 
campamento manana. 

El general ordeno que regrese- 
mos al campamento manana., 

Aquel astronomo sostenia que, 
de que la Biblia dijese (or, 
dijera) que Josue detuvo el 
sol, no se seguia que la doc- 
trina de Copernico fuese (or, 
fuera) falsa. 

Aquel astronomo sostenia que 
de que la Biblia diga que 
Josue detuvo el sol no se sigue 
que la doctrina de Copernico 
sea falsa. 


The general ordered us to return 
to camp tomorrow. 


That astronomer held that, from 
the fact that the Bible said that 
Joshua stopped the sun, it did 
not follow that the doctrine of 
Copernicus was false. 


50. When the principal verb is in the present, and the 
subjunctive dependent verb refers to the past, the simple 








§23 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


31 


preterit subjunctive should logically be employed, as in the 
first three examples given in Art. 48. Usage, however, 
sanctions the employment of the compound present instead 
of the preterit in all such cases. 

Yo no creo que Bacon haya sido el autor de “Hamlet.” 

Yo dudo mucho que los arabes hay an inventado el sistema decimal 
de numeracion. 

No es probable que cuando nosotros llegamos ellos hayan estado 
fuera de la ciudad. 


51. Tlie Compound Tenses. —The compound present 
expresses the same time relations that are expressed in the 
indicative by the compound present and the compound 
future; the compound preterit, the same relations that are 
expressed in the indicative by the compound copreterit and 
the compound postpreterit. The only exception to this rule 
is that, as stated in Art. 50, the compound present is some¬ 
times used in place of the simple preterit. 


Los cazadores han matado dos 
venados esta semana. 

< No creo que los cazadores hayan 

matado mas de dos venados 
esta semana. 

Antes del fin del mes habrernos 
terminado el inventario. 

Es probable que antes del fin 
del mes hayamos terminado el 
inventario. 

'Me prometio que cuando nos 
volviesemos a ver me habria 
conseguido una colocacion. 

< Me dijo que quiza cuando nos 

volviesemos a ver me hubiese 
(or, hubiera ) conseguido una 
colocacion. 

Era evidente que el viajero habia 
presenciado los sucesos que tan 
vivamente describia. 

Nadie creyo que el viajero hu¬ 
biese presenciado los sucesos 

. que pretendia describir. 


The hunters have killed two 
deer this week. 

• I do not think that the hunters 
have killed more than two 
deer this week. 

We shall have finished the in¬ 
ventory before the end of the 
month. 

It is likely that before the end of 
the month we shall have fin¬ 
ished the inventory. 

He promised me that, when we 
should meet again, he would 
have procured me a situation. 

•/ He told me that perhaps when 
we should meet again he would 
have procured me a situation. 

It was evident that the traveler 
had witnessed the events he 
so vividly described. 

No one believed that the traveler 
had witnessed the events he 
. pretended to describe. 












32 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§23 


TENSES OF THE HYPOTHETIC MODE 

52. The Two Time Forms of the Hypothetic. 
The hypothetic mode has only one simple and one com¬ 
pound time form, or tense. These forms serve to express 
the same time relations that are expressed by the simple 
and the compound present subjunctive, respectively. 


Simple Form Denoting Present Time 


No parece probable que los turcos 
sean tan depravados como este 
autor nos dice; mas, si lo fueren, 
ciertamente merecen el despre- 
cio del mundo civilizado. 


It does not seem likely that the 
Turks are as depraved as this 
author tells us; but, if they are, 
they certainly deserve the con¬ 
tempt of the civilized world. 


Simple Form Deis 

Si el Congreso de Colombia acep- 
tare el tratado, el canal se prin- 
cipiara pronto. 

Cuando usted recibiere el cable- 
grama que aguarda, aviseme. 

Compound Form as 

No parece probable que el gobier- 
no turco haya autorizado esos 
asesinatos; mas, si los hubiere 
autorizado , ciertamente merece 
el desprecio de las otras na- 
ciones. 

Compound Form a 

Si, cuando usted llegue, los in- 
quilinos no hubieren desocupado 
la casa, comuniquele las circuns- 
tancias a mi abogado. 

Luego que las dos partes hubieren 
firmado el instrumento de ven- 
ta, una copia de dicho instru¬ 
mento se depositary en la oficina 
de registro. 


ting Future Time 

If the Congress of Colombia 
should accept the treaty, the 
canal will be soon commenced. 

When you receive the cablegram 
you expect, let me know. 

Compound Present 

It is not seem likely that the Tur¬ 
kish government has authorized 
those massacres; but, if it has, 
it certainly deserves the con¬ 
tempt of other nations. 

Compound Future 

If, when you arrive, the tenants 
have not vacated the house, 
communicate the circumstances 
to my lawyer. 

As soon as the two parties shall 
have signed the instrument of 
sale, a copy of said instrument 
shall be deposited in the record¬ 
ing office. 


53. Indicative and Subjunctive Forms Substituted 
for the Hypothetic.— It was explained in Part 6 that a 






23 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


33 


hypothetic form introduced by si may be replaced by the 
corresponding indicative form (the simple form by the indic¬ 
ative simple present, and the compound form by the indicative 
compound present); and that, in all other cases, the hypo¬ 
thetic may be replaced by the subjunctive. 

No me parece probable que los turcos sean tan depravados como 
este autor nos dice; mas, si lo soil, ciertamente merecen el desprecio 
del mundo civilizado. 

Cuando usted reciba el cablegrama, aviseme. 

No me parece probable que el gobierno turco haya autorizado esos 
asesinatos; mas, si los lia autorizado, etc. 

Lubgo que las dos partes liayan firmado el instrumento de 
venta, etc. 

54. In constructions similar in form to those in which 
the hypothetic is employed, but in which the time relations 
are different from those just described, it is necessary to 
employ either indicative or subjunctive forms. When the 
hypothetic is introduced by si, either the subjunctive or the 
indicative is permissible, although the latter is preferable; 
otherwise, only the subjunctive is permissible. In the first 
example of each of the following pairs, the hypothetic is 
used; in the second, the time relations are such as this mode 
has no forms to express: 

Se ha resuelto que, si los turcos 
fueren for, sou) respon- 
sables por los asesinatos, se 
pida satisfaccion al sultan. 

■ Se resolvio que, si los turcos 
fuesen (or, fueran; or, 
better , eran) responsables 
por los asesinatos, se pidiese 
satisfaccion al sultan. 

Si usted encontrare (or, en- 
cuentra) al doctor Sanchez 
en casa, entreguele esta es- 
quela. 

Me dijo que, si lo encontrase 
(or, encontrara; or, better, 
encontraba) a usted en 
casa, le entregase esta esquela. 


It has heen resolved that, if the 
Turks are responsible for the 
massacres, satisfaction be de¬ 
manded from the Sultan. 

It was resolved that, if the 
Turks were responsible for the 

, massacres, satisfaction should 
be demanded from the Sultan. 

If you find Doctor Sanchez at 
home, deliver this note to him. 

He told me, if I found you at 
home, to deliver this note to 
you. 






34 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


23 


' Cuando nuestras hermanas lle- 
garen ( or, lleguen) , tenga 
la bondad de procurarles un 
coche. 

Le suplicamos que cuando nues¬ 
tras hermanas llegasen {or, 
llegaran) les procurara un 
coche. 

El general ha dispuesto que, 
cuando el enemigo lmblere 
(or, haya) evacuado las 
fortificaciones, estas se des- 
truyan. 

El general dispuso que, cuando 
el enemigo liubiese (or, 
bubiera) evacuado las for¬ 
tificaciones, estas se destru- 
. yeran. 

Sabemos que, si antes de ma- 
nana no liubieremos (or, 
liemos) terminado la 
obra, el contrato se declarara 
nulo. 

■ Sabiamos que, si 'antes del dia 
siguiente no bubiesemos 
(or, liubieramos; or,better, 
liabiamos) terminado la 
obra, el contrato se declararia 
nulo. 


When our sisters arrive, be kind 
enough to procure a carriage 
for them. 

We requested him, when our 
sisters arrived, to procure a 
carriage for them. 

The general has ordered that, 
when the enemy shall have 
vacated the forts, the latter 
be destroyed. 

The general ordered that, when 
the enemy should have vacated 
the forts, the latter should be 
destroyed. 

We know that, if before tomor¬ 
row we have not finished the 
work, the contract will be 
declared void. 

< We knew that, if before the fol¬ 
lowing day we had not finished 
the work, the contract would 
be declared void. 


INDICATIVE TENSES OF COEXISTENCE DEPENDING 
ON TENSES OF POSTERIORITY 

55. The indicative tenses of coexistence, both simple and 
compound, are often employed to indicate time relations of 
posteriority, when they occur in propositions introduced by 
the announcing que and performing the office of accusative 
of a verb denoting a perception, feeling, belief, or any other 
mental act. If this verb denotes future time, the indicative 
simple and the compound present of the dependent verb indi¬ 
cate, with respect to that time, the same relations that 
they usually indicate with respect to the present. If the 
principal verb is in the postpreterit, or, being in the preterit 










23 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


35 


subjunctive, denotes a time posterior to a past time, the 
simple and the compound indicative copreterit express, with 
respect to the time expressed by the principal verb, the same 
relations they ordinarily express with respect to the past. 
The following examples will make these principles clear: 

Veo que usted debe demasiado. I see that you owe too much. 

Creo que el mensajero lia lie- 1 think the messenger has arrived. 

gado. 

In these sentences, debe and ha llegado express their usual 
time relations with respect to the present; or, with respect to 
the time denoted by veo and creo , respectively. 


Cuando yo vea que usted debe 
demasiado, no le hare mas. 

En su ansiedad, usted creera 
muchas veces que lia llegado 
la hora. 


When I see that you owe too 
much, I will not trust you any 
more. 

In your anxiety, you will believe 
many times that the hour has 
arrived. 


In these two sentences, debe and ha llegado express the 
same time relations as before, but with respect to the times 
expressed by vea and creera , both of which are future. 


Me parecio entonces que usted 
gastaba demasiado. 

Descubri que mis empleados me 

liabian enganado, 


It seemed to me then that you were 
spending too much. 

I discovered that my employes 
had deceived me. 


Here gastaba and habian enganado express, with respect 
to the times indicated by parecio and descubri , the time rela¬ 
tions explained in Arts. 31 and 44, respectively. 


Le prometi que, si alguna vez me 
parecia que gastaba dema¬ 
siado, se lo diria francamente. 

Di ordenes a mi tenedor de libros 
que, cuando decubriese que mis 
empleados me liabian en¬ 
ganado, me lo avisara. 


I promised him, if at any time 
it seemed to me that he was 
spending too much, I would 
tell him so frankly. 

I gave orders to my bookkeeper 
that, when he should discover 
that my employes had deceived 
me, he would let me know 
(it). 






36 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§23 


Here the time relations expressed by gastaba and habtan 
engahado, with respect to the time indicated by parecia and 
descubriese, are the same as before; but, in the present case, 
these last two verbs express not merely a past time, but a 
time posterior , to a past event —the postpreterit relation. 


TENSES OF THE IMPERATIVE MODE 

56. The imperative has two tenses, one simple and one 
compound. The former exhibits the predicate as future 
with respect to the moment of speaking; the latter, as 
preceding a future event. The compound form, however, is 
only used —and not often —in the second person plural. 


Simple Form, Future Time 


Tintre y sientese, senor Garcia. 
Hagamos el experimento descrito 
en esa revista. 

Que lleven los caballos al establo. 


Come in and sit down, Mr. Garcia. 
Let us ' make the experiment 
described in that periodical. 
Let the horses be taken to the 
stable. 


Compound Form, Time Previous to a Future Event 
Habed terminado vuestra tarea Have your task finished before 
antes del anochecer. nightfall. 

57. Tener serves to supply some of the forms that the 
compound imperative lacks, but only with verbs having an 
accusative. The construction differs from that with haber in 
that the participle is then treated as an adjective, which must 
agree with the accusative in number and gender. Further¬ 
more, the accusative may be placed between tener and the 
participle, while between haber and a participle with which 
haber forms a compound tense no accusative can be placed. 

Tened terminadSL vuestra tarea 
antes del anochecer. 

Tened vuestra tarea terminadSL 
antes del anochecer. 

Tenga heckos los recibos cuando 
yo regrese. 

Tenga los recibos hechos cuando 
yo regrese. 


Have your task finished before 
nightfall. 


Have the receipts made out when 
I return. 








§23 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


37 


58. This construction of tener with a participle is not 
restricted to the imperative, as appears from the following 
examples: 


We have almost all the letters 
written. 

I think that before tomorrow 
I shall have these goods all 
packed. 

In these sentences, haber would be equally proper, but the 
participle would then be invariable. The difference between 
the construction with tener and that with haber is plainly 
indicated by the translations. 


Tenemos escrit&s casi todas las 
cartas. 

Creo que antes de manana tendrb 
estos generos empacados. 


Memos escrito casi todas las 
cartas. 

Creo que antes de manana habre 
empacaclo estos generos. 


We have written almost all the 
letters. 

I think that before tomorrow I 
shall have packed these goods. 


SECONDARY MEANINGS OF THE TENSES 


THE POSTPRETERIT AND THE SUBJUNCTIVE PRETERIT 
IN CONDITIONAL AND OPTATIVE SENTENCES 

59. Introduction. —The uses or meanings of the 
tenses explained in the foregoing articles are called funda¬ 
mental or primary uses or meanings, because they 
embrace all the time relations that can be expressed in 
discourse, and the forms by which these relations can, and 
ordinarily are, expressed. The uses and meanings now to be 
explained, in which some tenses are substituted for others, 
or are employed to vary the form, without altering the 
sense, of the sentence, are called secondary meanings or 
uses of the tenses. 

60. Conditional Sentences.—A conditional sen¬ 
tence is a complex sentence in which the existence or 
realization of what is expressed in the predicate of a 
proposition is exhibited as conditioned by, dependent on, 






SPANISH GRAMMAR 


23 


or following from, the existence or realization of what is 
expressed in the predicate of another proposition. The 
latter proposition expresses a condition or assumption, and 
is called the protasis of the sentence; the other proposition 
is called the apodosis. In the following sentences, the 
protasis is printed in Roman type; the apodosis, in Italic: 


Si el peso especifico de un cuerpo 
solido es mayor que el del agua, 
el cuerpo no puede flotar en este 
liquido. 

Si listed va a Filadelfia esta noche, 
llevele estos libros a su primo. 

Le permitire que haga esos experi- 
mentos en mi laboraiorio, con la 
condition de que usted compre 
los reactivos que necesite. 


If the specific gravity of a solid 
body is greater than that of 
water, the body cannot float 
in this liquid. 

If you go to Philadelphia tonight, 
take these books to your cousin. 

I will allow you to make those 
experiments in my laboratory, 
on condition that you will buy 
the reagents you need. 


61. Conditional Propositions With Implied Nega¬ 
tion.— The protasis of a conditional sentence may present 
its predicate as a possibility, as in the preceding examples, 
and then the mode and tense of the verb to be used are gov¬ 
erned by the general rules and principles already laid down; 
or it may present its predicate as something that does not 
exist, if reference is made to the present, or did not exist, 
if reference is made to the past. This implied negation is 
indicated by putting the verb in the simple or compound 
preterit subjunctive, according as the time considered is 
present or past. For the verb in the apodosis, either the 
indicative postpreterit or the preterit subjunctive form in -ra 
may be employed at pleasure, although the former is gener¬ 
ally preferred. This is one of the few cases in which the 
preterit subjunctives in -ra and -se are not interchangeable. 
If the verb in the protasis forms a negative expression with 
a negative adverb, the negation implied in the form of the 
verb transforms that negation into an affirmation. 


Si usted economizara (or, econo- 
mizase ) parte de su sueldo, 
viviria (or, viviera) mas como- 
damente. 


If you saved part of your salary, 
you would live more comforta¬ 
bly. 




23 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


39 


(You do not save part of your s 
more comfortably.) 

Es diflcil concebir cual habria 
(or, hubiera) sido la suerte de 
Europa, si Napoleon no hubiera 
(or, hubiese) perdido la batalla 
de Waterloo. 

(Napoleon did lose the battle of 
quences of his not having lost it w 

“Si yo fuera (or, fuese ) libre, 
podria (or, pudiera) colmar 
cada dia de placer: a nadie 
haria (or, hiciera) mal, y no 
causaria (or, causara) resenti- 
mientos; aliviaria (or, aliviara) 
todo sufrimiento, y gozaria (or, 
gozara) de las bendiciones de la 
gratitud.’’ 

(Here the implication is that I 
consequences of my being free are 


dary, and therefore you do not live 

It is difficult to conceive what 
would have been the fate of 
Europe, if Napoleon had not 
lost the battle of Waterloo. 

Waterloo, and therefore the conse- 
re not realized.) 

“Were I free, I should be able to 
fill every day with pleasure; I 
would injure no one, and should 
provoke no resentments; I 
would relieve every distress, 
and should enjoy the benedic¬ 
tions of gratitude.” 


am not free, and that therefore the 
not realized.) 


62. Occasionally, when reference is made to the past, 
the simple form of the verb is used instead of the compound, 
although the latter is equally proper. The subjunctive form 
in -ra is then used in the apodosis to the exclusion of the 
postpreterit. 

Si los refuerzos alemanes no 
llegaran (or, llegasen ) en aquel 
momento, Wellington fuera 
derrotado. 

Si los refuerzos alemanes no 
hubieran (or, hubiesen) llegado 
en aquel momento, Welling¬ 
ton habria (or, hubiera) sido 
derrotado. 

63. The indicative copreterit occurs sometimes in the 
apodosis instead of the postpreterit or the subjunctive 
preterit; but this use of the copreterit is today compara¬ 
tively rare. 


If the German reinforcements had 
not arrived at that moment, 
Wellington would have been 
defeated. 






40 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


23 


Si usted me hubiese (or, hubiera) 
heeho la propuesta ayer, yo la 
liabia aceptado sin vacilacion 
[better , yo la liabria (or, 
liubiera) aceptado sin vacila¬ 
cion]. 


If you had made the proposition 
to me yesterday, I would have 
accepted it without any hesita¬ 
tion. 


64. In all the preceding examples, the protasis is intro¬ 
duced by si, and contains a verbal time form; it is therefore 
a true proposition, and as such it was defined in Art 60. 
There are, however, conditional expressions that, although 
containing neither the conjunction si nor a verbal time form, 
are equivalent, either from their usual signification or from 
the circumstances in which they occur, to a proposition intro¬ 
duced by si and containing a verbal form of implied negation. 
Such expressions are treated as would the propositions to 
which they are equivalent, and therefore the verb in the 
apodosis follows the rules laid down in the foregoing articles. 


Sin tanta diplomacia, no liubie- 
ramos (or, liabriamos) lo- 
grado el fin que nos pro- 
poniamos. 

Por otro camino, liubiera (or, 
liabria) sido imposible llegar 
k las fuentes del Orinoco. 

Con rnds esmero de parte de las 
autoridades, la Habana fuera 
(or, seria) menos malsana. 


Without so much diplomacy, we 
should not have attained the end 
we had in view ( literally , the end 
we proposed to ourselves). 

By another road, it would have 
been impossible to arrive at the 
source of the Orinoco. 

Wfith more care on the part of the 
authorities, Havana would be 
less unhealthful. 


These sentences are equivalent to, and may be replaced 
by, the following, respectively: 


Si no hubiesemos empleado tanta 
diplomacia , no hubieramos lo- 
grado el fin que nos proponia- 
mos. 

Si se hubiese seguido otro camino, 
hubiera sido imposible llegar k 
las fuentes del Orinoco. 

Si hubiese mas esmero de parte 
de las autoridades, la Habana 
fuera menos malsana. 


If we had not used so much 
diplomacy, we should not have 
attained the end we had in view. 

If another road had been fol¬ 
lowed, it would have been im¬ 
possible to arrive at the source 
of the Orinoco. 

If there were more care on the 
part of the authorities, Havana 
would be less unhealthful. 






23 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


41 


65. Closely akin to the cases just considered are those 
in which the protasis is not expressed, being understood. 


Yo no hubiera (or, habrla) acep- 
tado semejante proposition. 

Nosotros no pagaramos (or, paga- 
riamos) los salarios que listed 
paga. 


I would not have accepted such a 
proposition. 

We would not pay the salaries 
that you do. 


In the first of these two sentences, the tacit protasis is, 
si se me hubiese hecho, if it had been proposed to me; in 
the second, si estuviesemos en su lugar, if we were in 
your place. 


66. The conjunction si is sometimes omitted for rhetor¬ 
ical effect. The apodosis is then elegantly introduced by 
either y or que , although neither of these words is strictly 
necessary, and may therefore be dispensed with. 


Tuviera (or, Tuviese) yo el poder, 
y aboliria (or, aboliera ) todos 
los monopolios. 

Fueras tu mi igual, que tendrias 
(or, tuvieras ) que lavar este 
insulto con tu sangre. 

Hubiera sido Venezuela mas pru- 
dente, y no habria (or, hubiera) 
provocado la guerra que ame- 
naza arruinarla. 


Had I the power, I would abolish 
all monopolies. 

Wert thou my equal, thou 
shouldst wash this insult with 
thy blood. 

Had Venezuela been more pru¬ 
dent, she would not have pro¬ 
voked the war that threatens to 
ruin her. 


67. Conditional Sentences Excluding the Postpret¬ 
erit in the Apodosis.—It has been stated, and the fore¬ 
going examples illustrate the statement, that the indicative 
postpreterit and the preterit subjunctive are interchangeable 
in the apodosis of conditional sentences with implied nega¬ 
tion. This rule, however, does not apply when the verb in 
the apodosis depends on a phrase or word that, according to 
the general principles governing the use of the subjunctive, 
requires the employment of the latter mode. 


Dudo que, si el medico no hubiese 
llegado tan pronto, el paciente 
hubiera (or, hubiese) 
sobrevivido el ataque. 


I doubt whether, if the physician 
had not arrived so soon, the 
patient would have survived 
the attack. 





42 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§23 


68. Use of the Indicative Postpreterit and the 
Preterit Subjunctive as Marks of Politeness or 
Modesty. — In Spanish, as in English, a request is modestly 
and politely made by giving the sentence a conditional form 
with implied negation. 


Si usted tuviera (or, tuviese) la 
bondad de ensenarme la esta- 
cion, me haria (or, hiciera) un 
gran favor. 

Si ustedes me escucharan (or, 
escuch'asen ) por unos pocos 
momentos, me gustaria (or, 
gustara) mostrarles algunos 
articulos que estoy vendiendo. 


If you would have the kindness 
to show me the station, you 
would do me a great favor. 

If you would listen to me for a 
few moments, I should like to 
show you some articles I am 
selling. 


In sentences similar to the last, the verbs desear and querer 
have the same signification as gustar , and are rendered by 
to like. 


Si ustedes me eschuchasen por unos pocos momentos, desearia 
(or, querria ) mostrarles algunos articulos que estoy vendiendo. 


69. In sentences like the following, the apodosis is 
understood; it may be, si fuera posible, if it were possible; 
si usted me lo permitiera, if you would allow me; si yo 
pudiera dar mi opinion sohre el asiinto, if I could give 
my opinion on the subject; or some such expression, according 
to circumstances: 


Deseariamos (or, Desearamos ) ha- 
blar con el administrador. 

Me gustaria (or, Me gustara) que 
usted me diese su opinion sobre 
esta obra. 

Quisiera (or, Querria) que usted 
viniese a verme a menudo. 

Yo diria (or, dijera) que la causa 
de su quiebra ha sido la excesiva 
confianza que usted ha puesto 
en sus agentes. 


We should like to speak with the 
manager. 

I should like you to give me your 
opinion of this work. 

I would like you to come to see 
me often. 

I should say that the cause of 
your failure has been the exces¬ 
sive confidence you have placed 
in your*agents. 


It will be seen from the second and the third sentence that 
the subjunctive form diese, governed by gustar , is placed in 
the preterit, as if gustaria actually expressed past time. 




23 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


43 


70. In interrogative sentences, the indicative postpreterit 


or the subjunctive preterit is 
present or future. 

iTuviera (or, Tendria) usted la 
bondad de cambiarme este bi- 
llete? 

iPudiera (or, Podria ) usted decir- 
me que hora es? 


politely substituted for the 

Would you have the kindness to 
change this bank note for me? 

Could you tell me what time it is? 


71. Optative Sentences With Implied Negation. 
An optative sentence is a sentence expressing an earnest 
desire and introduced by a verb in the subjunctive mode. 
That verb is the principal verb in the sentence, and others 
depending on it must be in the same mode. It is a general 
rule that an indicative form cannot be made to depend on a 
subjunctive form. 


I Permit a Dios que no halles la 
muerte en tan peligrosa aven- 
tura! 

jPlegue a Dios que vivas muchos 
anos mds, y que seas feliz! 


May God permit that thou do not 
find death in so dangerous an 
adventure! 

God grant (or, May it please God) 
that thou mayst live many years 
more and be happy! 


When querer is used in the third person in an optative 
sentence, it is rendered by to grant or to permit. 


jQuiera tu estrella que las ma- 
quinaciones de tus enemigos se 
frusten! 


May thy star permit that the 
machinations of thy enemies 
be frustrated! 


In all these sentences, the object of the desire is presented 
as a possibility. If what is desired is an impossibility, or 
something that does not actually exist, the form of the verb 
is changed from the present to the preterit subjunctive.* 

iPluguiera d Dios que pudie- 
semos sacudir el yugo de nues- 
tros tiranos! 

jHubiera muerto mi hijo en 
aquella batalla, en vez de trai- 
cionar d su patria! 


Would to God that we could shake 
off the yoke of our tyrants! 

Would that my son had died in 
that battle, instead of betraying 
his country! 


*For the conjugation of placer, of which plegue and pluguiera are 
subjunctive forms, see Part 7, Irregular Verbs. 







44 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


23 


It will be observed that both the principal verb and the 
dependent —when there is one —indirectly negative the exist¬ 
ence of what is denoted by the verb. Thus, in the first 
example, pluguiera implies that a l)ios no le place, it 
does not please God; and pudiSsemos implies that nosotros no 
podemos, we cannot . In the second example, hubiera 
muerto implies that el no murio, he did not die. 

72. As explained in Part 7, the interjection ojald is a sort 
of abbreviated proposition expressing an earnest wish and 
requiring the subjunctive form of the dependent verb. If 
this verb is put in the preterit subjunctive, negation is usually 
implied, although sometimes, as in the third of the examples 
that follow, the preterit form indicates only improbability. 


/ Ojald que mi madre estuviese 
(or, estuviera) aqui! 

/ Ojald que no linbiesemos 
(or, liubieramos) vendido 
nuestra hacienda con tanta pre- 
cipitacion! 

/ Ojald que el viniese (or, 'vi - 
niera) manana! 


Would that {or, I wish) my 
mother were here! 

I wish we had not sold our ranch 
with so much hastiness. 


I wish he would come tomorrow. 


In the last sentence, the preterit indicates that it is not 
likely that the person referred to will come tomorrow. If 
the event, being desired, is not considered improbable, the 
present should be used instead of the preterit, and ojald is 
better rendered by a form of to hope. 

jOjald que 61 venga manana! [ I hope he may come tomorrow. 

73. In optative sentences implying negation or improb¬ 
ability, the subjunctive preterit of querer has practically the 
same meaning as ojald. Only the form in -ra is used for this 
purpose. 

Quisiera que mi madre estuviese aqui. 

Quisiera que no hubiesemos vendido nuestra hacienda con tanta 
precipitacion. 

Quisiera que 61 viniese manana. 

It should be observed that quisiera is in these cases ren¬ 
dered by the indicative present of to wish; I wish my mother 



23 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


45 


were here , / wish 7M? had not sold our ranch , etc. In sentences 
like the following, the preterit forms of qnerer are better 
rendered by forms of to like (see also Arts. 68 and 69): 


Quisiera haberme hallado en la 
batalla de Santiago. 

Hubiera querido hallarme en la 
batalla de Santiago. 


I should like to have been at the 
battle of Santiago. 

I should have liked to be at the 
battle of Santiago. 


In the first of these two sentences, the simple form quisiera 
indicates a present wish; in the second, the compound form 
hubiera querido indicates a past wish —that, at the time of the 
battle, or before that time, it was the speaker’s wish to be 
present, although he knew that he could not be. 


74. Conditional Sentences With Implied Improb¬ 
ability. —The character of this class of sentences will be 


understood by considering the 

Si mi socio llega (or, llegare ) 
hoy, firmaremos el contrato esta 
noche. 

Si mi socio llegase (or, llegara) 
hoy, firmariamos (or, firmara- 
mos) el contrato esta noche. 


two following examples: 

If my partner arrives today, we 
will sign the contract tonight. 

If my partner should arrive today, 
we would sign the contract 
tonight. 


In the first sentence, either the indicative llega or the 
hypothetic llegare (see Art. 53) exhibits the coming of the 
person referred to as a possible, and not improbable, event; 
the implication is that he is expected to come either today 
or in the near future. In the second sentence, on the con¬ 
trary, the preterit form llegase presents the same event as 
something that is not expected, something unlikely to 
happen, and which is stated simply as an assumption. 
The following are additional illustrations of this difference: 


Si usted sale (or, saliere ) por el 
vapor de manana, e star a en 
Puerto Cabello el diez del mes 
entrante. 

Si usted saliese (or, satiera) por 
el vapor de manana, estaria 
en Puerto Cabello el diez del 
mes entrante. 


If you leave by tomorrow’s 
steamer, you will be at Puerto 
Cabello on the tenth of next 
month. 

If you should leave by tomor¬ 
row’s steamer, you would be 
at Puerto Cabello on the tenth 
of next month. 









46 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


23 


Si Rengifo y Compania protes- 
tan (or, protestaren) esa letra, 
romperemos nuestras relacio- 
nes con ellos. 

Si Rengifo y Compania protes- 
taran (or, prolestasen)esa.\etra., 
romperlamos (or, rompieramos) 
nuestras relaciones con ellos. 


If Rengifo and Company protest 
that draft, we will sever our 
relations with them. 

If Rengifo and Company should 
protest that draft, we would 
sever our relations with them. 


75. Improper Substitution of the Preterit Sub¬ 
junctive for the Hypothetic. —The use of the preterit 
subjunctive just explained is restricted to sentences with 
implied improbability. Unless this implication is intended, 
the hypothetic should be employed. It is not uncommon, 
especially among Spaniards, to use the preterit subjunctive 
as if it were interchangeable with the hypothetic, but this 
practice is not warranted by the works of the best writers, 
and is condemned by all good grammarians. 

Si el profesor no estuviese en casa, | If the professor is not at home, 
dejele este libro con la senora. I leave this book for him with his 

wife. 

This is an incorrect construction, which should be replaced 
by either, Si el profesor no estuviere, etc., or, Si el profesor 
no esta, etc. 


OTHER SECONDARY USES OF THE TENSES 

76. Past Events Described as Present. — In narrative 
style, much vividness is added to the description of past 
events by representing them as if happening at the present 
time. The speaker or writer appears then as if he were wit¬ 
nessing the facts he narrates, and presenting them before 
the listener or reader as objects of direct perception, rather 
than of memory. In this form of composition, the present 
tense is substituted for the preterit, and all other tenses are 
correspondingly changed; that is, the future takes the place 
of the postpreterit, the compound present, that of the com¬ 
pound copreterit, etc. In the first form of the following 
example, all tenses are employed in their normal or primary 






§23 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


47 


meanings, and indicate the actual time relations, with respect 
to the present, of the events described; in the second, the 
main events are metaphorically exhibited as present, and the 
tenses are changed accordingly. 


Acababcin de dar las seis. Don 
Juan, que durante la noche 
habta contado las horas con im- 
paciencia, salto de la cama, y se 
vistio precipitadamente. Llatno 
luego a su criado, a quien 
ordeno que tuviese el coche listo 
dentro de media hora; y, de- 
jando sobre su escritorio una 
esquela en que daba a su pobre 
madre la noticia de que esa noche 
se embarcaria para America, 
solid del hogar que tan caro le 
habta sido, y que nunca volverta 
k ver. 

Acaban de dar las seis. Don 
Juan, que durante la noche ha 
contado las horas con impa- 
ciencia, salta de la cama y se 
viste precipitadamente. Llama 
luego a su criado, a quien 
ordena que tenga el coche listo 
dentro de media hora; y, de- 
jando sobre su escritorio una 
esquela en que da a su pobre 
madre la noticia de que esa noche 
se etnbarcara para America, 
sale de aquel hogar que tan 
caro le ha sido, y que nunca 
volvera a ver. 


It had just struck six. Don Juan, 
who during the night had 
counted the hours with im¬ 
patience, sprang from his bed, 
and hurriedly dressed himself. 
Then he called his servant, 
whom he ordered to have the 
carriage ready within half an 
hour; and leaving on his desk a 
note giving his poor mother the 
news that he would that night 
sail for America, left the home 
that had been so dear to him, 
and that he would never see 
again. 

It has just struck six. Don Juan, 
who during the night has 
counted the hours with im¬ 
patience, springs from his bed 
and hurriedly dresses himself. 
Then he calls his servant, whom 
he orders to have the carriage 
ready within half an hour; and 
leaving on his desk a note giv¬ 
ing his poor mother the news 
that that night he will sail for 
America, leaves the home that 
has been so dear to him, and 
that he will never see again. 


This secondary use of the tenses is much more frequent in 
Spanish than in English, and is considered both elegant and 
forcible. 

77. Use of the Indicative Present in Conditional 
Sentences With Implied Negation. — In familiar and in 
lively style, the indicative present may replace the compound 
forms of the postpreterit and of the subjunctive preterit in 





48 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§23 


conditional sentences with implied negation. The substitu¬ 
tion may be made in both the apodosis and the protasis, or 
in one of these members only. 


Si yo no llego en aquel mo¬ 
menta, la matan. 

Si yo no hubiera llegado en 
aquel momento, la matan. 

Si yo no llego en aquel mo¬ 
mento, la hubieran matado. 

Si yo no hubiera llegado en aquel 
momento, la hubieran matado. 


If I had not arrived at that mo¬ 
ment, they would have killed 
her. 


The last form may be considered as the normal form of 
the sentence. The others are more forcible, and add much 
vividness to the expression, but are less formal and dignified. 


78. After casi, almost; por poco, nearly , and a few 
other words and phrases of like import, the present tense is 
used with reference to past events with the implication that 
what is denoted by the verb did not take place. 


Casi me vuelven loco con sus 
preguntas. 

Por poco se sale el tigre de la 
jaula. 


They almost made me crazy with 
their questions. 

The tiger came very near getting 
out of the cage. 


79. Substitution of tbe Tenses of Coexistence for 
Those of Posteriority. —The indicative present is often 
substituted for the future, especially in familiar language, to 
indicate certainty or necessity regarding the future occur¬ 
rence of that which the verb denotes, or to express a reso¬ 
lution or promise in an emphatic manner. Under similar 
circumstances, the copreterit takes the place of the post¬ 
preterit. This secondary use of the tenses of coexistence is 
much more common in Spanish than in English. 


Manana hay un eclipse de luna. 

El tren sale k las doce en punto. 

El vapor llega el sabado. 

Pepita baila esta noche en el 
teatro Central. 


There is a lunar eclipse tomorrow. 

The train leaves at twelve o’clock 
sharp. 

The steamer arrives next Satur¬ 
day. 

Pepita dances at the Central thea¬ 
ter tonight. 






23 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


49 


Manana vengo a verte. 

Espereme aqui; vnelvo dentro de 
cinco minutos. 

Sabiamos que el vapor llegaba 
esa tarde. 

Me prometid que al dla siguiente 
venia k verme. 


I will come to see you tomorrow. 

Wait for me here; I will be back 
within five minutes. 

We knew that the steamer would 
arrive (or, was to arrive) that 
afternoon. 

He promised me that he would 
come to see me on the follow¬ 
ing day. 


In all these examples, the present and the copreterit could 
be replaced by the future and the postpreterit, respectively; 
but this substitution would make the sentences both more 
formal and less forcible. 

Manana habra un eclipse de luna. — El tren saldrd k las doce 
en punto. 

Sabiamos que el vapor llegarta esa tarde.—Me prometid que al dia 
siguiente vendria a verme. 


80. Use of the Indicative Tenses of Posteriority 
to Express Uncertainty, Supposition, or Surprise. — In 
familiar style, the indicative future is employed to express 
supposition, conjecture, or uncertainty with respect to 
present events; and, with respect to past events, the post¬ 
preterit is employed with similar implications. Both the 
simple and the compound tenses of posteriority are used in 
this manner. The character of supposition or uncertainty 
they give to the sentence is usually directly expressed in 
English by the verb to suppose , by such adverbs as possibly , 
likely , or by must, which often has a conjectural value. 


iDdnde estd don Eduardo?— Es- 
tara en su cuarto, pues el rara 
vez sale de noche. 

Sus amigos ya sabran mucho 
espanol, pues hace tiempo que 
lo est&n estudiando. 


^Qud hora es? — Seran las cinco y 
media. 


Where is Mr. Edward? —Probably 
(or, I suppose) he is in his 
room, for he seldom goes out 
in the evening. 

Your friends must know (or, I 
suppose your friends know) a 
great deal of Spanish already, 
for they have been studying it a 
long time. 

What time is it? —I suppose (or, 
Probably) it is about half past 
five. 




50 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§23 


Usted estara cansada, senorita 
Carmen; aqui tiene usted una 
silla. 

,;Que hora era cuando usted salid? 
— Serian las tres. 

^Ddnde estaba don Pedro cuando 
usted estuvo en el hotel?— Es- 
taria en la calle, pues no le vl. 

Ya habrd llegado el presidente, 
pues oigo la banda tocando. 


You must be tired, Miss Carmen; 
here is a chair for you. 

What time was it when you went 
out? —It may have been (or, I 
suppose it was) about three 
o’clock. 

Where was Mr. Peter when you 
were at the hotel? —I suppose he 
was out, for I did not see him. 

The president must have arrived 
already, for I hear the band 
playing. 


Although the forms of suponer, to suppose, are implied in 
these tenses of posteriority, usage authorizes the tautological 
employment of those forms in combination with those tenses. 

,-Donde estd don Juan? — Supongo que estard en su cuarto. 

Supongo que sus amigos ya sabran mucho espanol. 

<;Que hora era cuando usted salio? — Supongo que serian las tres. 

When, however, the forms of suponer are expressed, the 
tenses of posteriority may be replaced by those that ordi¬ 
narily serve to express the time relations under consideration. 

^Donde estd don Juan? — Supongo que esta en su cuarto. 

iQue hora era cuando usted salio? — Supongo que eran las tres. 


81. In a few expressions, as, Asi sera. That may be, the 
future expresses either doubt, condescension (granting for 
argument’s sake), or indifference. 


Este hombre ha venido muy bien 
recomend ado. —Asi sera, pero 
yo no le confiare mis negocios. 

Pedro Duarte tendra mucho dinero 
y ocupara una alta posicion 
entre los comerciantes de esta 
ciudad, pero eso no prueba que 
sea un hombre de educacion 


This man has come very well 
recommended.— That may be, 
but I will not entrust my busi¬ 
ness to him. 

Peter Duarte may have a great 
deal of money and may occupy 
a high position among the mer¬ 
chants of this city, but that does 
not prove that he is a man of 
education. 


82. In interrogative sentences, the tenses of posteriority 
serve to express surprise or curiosity; the future relating to 




§23 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


51 


present events, and the postpreterit to past events. In 
English, the normal tense of the verb is employed preceded 
by such expressions as / wonder , / should like to know , the 
sentence being affirmative in form; or by the infinitive of the 


verb preceded by cart. 

<;D6nde estard mi hermano? 

dQue le habra sucedido a don 
Jorge? 

dPorque no llegaria el vapor antes 
de ayer? 


I wonder where my brother is. 
Where can my brother be? 

I wonder what has happened to 
Mr. George. 

What can have happened to Mr. 
George? 

I wonder why the steamer did not 
arrive the day before yesterday. 


83. In negative complex sentences in which the depend¬ 
ent proposition is an indirect question, the tenses of pos¬ 
teriority serve to express uncertainty, usually with the 
implication of wonder or bewilderment. 


No se donde estard mi hermano. 

No se que le habra sucedido a don 
Jorge. 


I do not know where my brother 
can be. 

I do not know what can have 
happened to Mr. George. 


84. In this secondary use of the verbal forms now under 
consideration, the compound future may be replaced by the 
simple postpreterit. 


Ya llegaria (or, Supongo que ya llegaria ) el presidente, pues oigo 
la banda tocando. 

^Que le sucederia a don Jorge? 


Remark. — A similar application of the English potential ( should 
followed by the infinitive), which is the literal translation of the 
Spanish postpreterit, is occasionally met with in Shakespeare. 


“Where should he learn our lan¬ 
guage?’’ {that is, I wonder 
where he learned our language). 

“Where should he find the liq¬ 
uor?’’ [that is, I wonder where 
he found the liquor). 


“iDonde aprenderia el nuestro 
idioma?’’ 

‘b Donde encontraria el licor?” 


85. Use of the Indicative Future Instead of the 
Imperative. — In Spanish, as in English, the indicative 






52 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§23 


future form is employed instead of the imperative, in giving 


authoritative commands. In 
often substituted for shall , 
modesty. 

“No matards .” 

“A1 Senor tu Dios adorards, ya el 
solo serviras." 

Los empleados trabajaran ocho 
horas todos los dlas, menos el 
domingo. 

Coronel, usted atacara el ala 
izquierda del enemigo. 


English, the auxiliary will is 
as a mark of politeness or 

“Thou shalt not kill.” 

“The Lord thy God shalt thou 
worship, and him alone shalt 
thou serve.” 

Employes shall work eight hours 
every day, except Sunday. 

Colonel, you will attack the 
enemy’s left wing. 


86. The second person of the indicative future of saber, 
to know , is used in familiar style in the sense of You must 
know , or I wish you to knozv. 


Sabras que nuestros planes han 
fracasado. 

Sabra usted que yo tambien he 
sido actor. 


You must know (or, I wish you to 
know) that our plans have failed. 
You must know that I also have 
been an actor. 


87. Secondary Uses of tlie Indicative Preterit.. 
The indicative preterit is occasionally substituted: 

1. For the indicative compound present, and even for the 
future, to express hopelessness, by representing the meaning 
of the verb as something that has already happened and is 
beyond all remedy. 

Sabe, ingrata mujer, que nues- 
tras relaciones terminaron para 
siempre. 

Ya perdi to da esperanza. 

Nos mataron , general, pues el 
enemigo nos tiene completa- 
mente rodeados. 


Know, ungrateful woman, that 
our relations are forever ended. 

I have already lost all hope. 

We shall surely be killed (or, We 
are as good as killed), general, 
for the enemy has us entirely 
surrounded. 


2. In poetry, for the indicative compound present, with¬ 
out any special implication, and simply for elegance. 

“iCuando no fue inconstante la j “When was not fortune fickle?” 
fortuna?” 





23 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


53 


88. Use of the Preterit Subjunctive Instead of 
the Compound Copreterit. —This substitution is mainly 
adapted to elevated style. As it is not very common, and 
its timely application requires a very good knowledge of the 
rhetoric of the language, the learner is advised to avoid it. 


Asi termind sus dias este valeroso 
mariscal — fusilado por los mis- 
mos soldados d quienes pocos 
anos antes condujera (or, habia 
conducido ) a la victoria. 


Thus ended his days this brave 
marshal — shot by the very 
soldiers whom a few years 
before he had led to victory. 



















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SPANISH GRAMMAR 

(PART 9) 


THE VERB— (Continued) 


VERBAL DERIVATIVES 


THE INFINITIVE 

1. Substantive and Verbal Character of the Infin¬ 
itive.—It has been already explained that the infinitive 
combines some of the distinguishing characteristics of the 
substantive with those of the verb. As a substantive, it can 
be, like other substantives, the subject or accusative of a 
verb, or the object of a preposition. These three offices are 
illustrated, in order, by the following examples: 


Comprar y vender son ahora mi 
unica ocupacion. 

La senorita Rosa desea salir. 

Entro sin saludar, y se fue sin 
despedirse. 

The infinitive can be also ; 
referring to another infinitive 
the office of subject. 


To buy and to sell {or, Buying 
and selling) are now my only 
occupation. 

Miss Rose wishes to go out. 

He came in without saluting, and 
left without saying good by. 

i predicate substantive, often 

that performs in the sentence 


‘ ‘ El reino de Dios no es corner y 
beber. ’ ’ 

Vivir es luchar y padecer; 
morir es descansar. 


“The kingdom of God is not 
eating and drinking.” 

To live is to struggle and to suffer; 
to die is to rest. 


For notice of copyright, see Page immediately following the title page 
g 24 







2 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§24 


2. This verbal derivative may, like verbal time forms, 
have a subject or an accusative, or both; take oblique pro¬ 
nominal cases (which are usually placed after it), and be 
modified by adverbs. 


Para nosotros aceptar esa pro- 
puesta, seria necesario que usted 
nos diese mejores garantias. 


For us to accept that proposition, 
it would be necessary that you 
should give us better securities. 


{Nosotros is the subject, and esa propuesta the accusative, of aceptar.) 

Nacer uno pobre es una des- I For one to be born poor is a mis- 
gracia, no una falta. | fortune, not a fault. 

{Uno, subject of nacer.) 

“Para administrar bien los in- I “To administer well the interests 
tereses de la sociedad es preciso j of society, it is necessary to 

conocer/M perfectamente." j know them perfectly.” 


{Bien and perfectamente , adverbs modifying administrar and cono- 
cer, respectively; los intereses de la sociedad, accusative of administrar; 
los, accusative of conocer.) 


It will be observed that the infinitive with its modifiers 
forms substantive phrases. Thus, in the last example, 
administrar bien los intereses de la sociedad is a substantive 
phrase serving as object to the preposition para , and eono- 
cer los perfectamente is a substantive phrase performing the 
office of subject of the verb es. 

In the following example, el fuego is the subject, and nues- 
tros almacenes the accusative, of destruir , while the whole 
phrase el fuego destruir nuestros almacenes is the accusative 
of vim os: 

Vimos el fuego destruir nues- j We saw the fire destroy our store- 
/roi fl/war«iO, mas no pudimos houses, but we could not pre- 
impedirfo. vent it. 

Lo is the accusative of impedir, while the whole expression 
impedirlo is the accusative of pudimos. 


3. The construction of the infinitive with the definite 
article was explained and illustrated in Part 5. Here it must 




§24 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


3 


be added that, although the article is an adjective, it does 
not deprive the infinitive of its verbal character; that is, it 
does not exclude adverbial modifiers, pronominal cases, etc. 
The article is mainly used when the infinitive performs the 
functions of subject or is a predicate substantive. 


El traducir bien un idioma 
es mucho m&s dificil que el 
hablarlo. 

El vivir tu tan lejos nos im- 
pidio ir a verte. 


To translate a language well is 
much more difficult than to 
speak it. 

Your living so far prevented us 
from going to see you. 


In the first of these two examples, traducir is modified by 
the adverb bien , and has the accusative un idioma; while 
hablar has the accusative lo. In the second, vivir has the 
subject tu and is modified by the adverbial phrase tan lejos. 
Notice very particularly that in English the possessive adjec¬ 
tive corresponding to the Spanish nominative pronoun is 
used with the present participle by which the Spanish 
infinitive is rendered. 


4. Occasionally, the infinitive is employed as a pure sub¬ 
stantive, being modified by adjectives and adjective phrases. 


el dulcisinio murmurar del 
arroyo 

su andar elegante; ese su 
mirar encantador 

Su tedioso charlar es inso- 
portable. 

“Su amor con tu morir com- 
praste.” 


the very sweet babbling of the 
stream 

his elegant gait ( literally , walk¬ 
ing); that charming (way of) 
looking of hers 

His tiresome prattling is unbear¬ 
able. 

“With thy death ( literally , With 
thy dying) didst thou buy her 
love.” 


5. The indefinite pronoun uno, one , is very often 
employed as the subject of an infinitive, especially of ser, 
to be , followed by a predicate adjective; with infinitives 
modified by phrases containing possessive adjectives; and 
in giving the definitions of certain verbs, in which uno may 
also be used as the accusative or dative of the infinitive, 
to show the grammatical construction of the verb. 




4 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


24 


El ser uno pobre no es deshonra. 

Maiar uno a su madre es un 
crimen casi inconcebible. 

Gustarte a uno algo es hallar 
placer en ello. 

“Patriotismo”: amar uno a su 
patria , 6 el amor de la patria 
de uno. 


For one to be poor is no dis¬ 
honor.’ 

For one to kill one’s mother is 
an almost inconceivable crime. 

For one to like something is to 
find pleasure in it. 

“Patriotism”: to love one’s coun¬ 
try, or the love of one’s country. 


With ser and a predicate adjective, uno, like one in English, 
may be omitted. 

El sei* pobre no es deshonra. 


A possessive adjective should always refer to an expressed 
substantive. The following construction, although not 
uncommon, is entirely ungrammatical: 


“Patriotismo”: amar k su patria, 6 el amor de su patria. 

6. The Infinitive Preceded by A.—The preposition 
d followed by an infinitive may form the protasis of a con¬ 
ditional sentence, usually, though not always, with implied 
negation. Whether or not negation is implied is indicated by 
the form of the verb in the apodosis. 


A tener yo (or, Si yo tuviera ) el 
dinero que usted necesita, se lo 
prestaria con el mayor gusto. 

A no llegar mi equipaje (or, Si 
mi equipaje no llega) esta 
noche, tendre que comprar un 
vestido. 


If I had the money you need, I 
would loan it to you with the 
greatest pleasure. 

If my baggage does not arrive 
tonight, I shall have to buy a 
dress. 


A peculiarity of this construction is that the simple infini¬ 
tive may take the place of a compound verbal form. 


A saber yo (or, Si yo liubiera 
sabido) que ustedes estaban 
aqui, habria venido antes k 
verlos. 


If I had known that you were 
here, I would have come to see 
you before. 


Here, however, the compound infinitive (haber with 





24 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


5 


the participle of the verb) would be equally proper gram¬ 
matically, and logically more so. 

A liaber sabido yo que ustedes estaban aqui, habria venido 
antes a verlos. 

7. Another use of the infinitive preceded by a is to indi¬ 
cate persistency or insistency, most always in contrasting 
expressions like the following: 


Muy desagradable fue nuestra 
conversacion: el a pedir , y yo 
a negar; el a suplicar, y yo a 
reprender. 


Our conversation was very dis¬ 
agreeable: he bent on asking, 
and I on refusing; he eagerly 
beseeching, and I unyieldingly 
reprimanding. 


As will be noticed, the translation of this Spanish sentence 
has been made very freely. The student may always be 
guided by the literal translation, which can be effected by 
means of the verb to insist: he insisted on asking , and I on 
refusing; he insisted on beseeching , arid I on reprimanding. 


8. The Infinitive Preceded by Al. - The contraction 
al followed by an infinitive denotes coexistence or imme¬ 
diate anteriority. The combination may sometimes be 
rendered by on or when followed by the present participle 
(literal equivalent of the Spanish gerund) of the verb, 
sometimes by this participle alone, sometimes by as or when 
in conjunction with a time form of the verb. Estar al 
followed by an infinitive may be rendered by to be on the 
point of , to come very near , followed by the present participle. 


Lo primero que hicimos al desem- 
barcar fue alquilar un inter- 
prete. 

Al ver a Bruto entre los conjura- 
dos, Cesar exclamo: “jY tu 
tambien, Bruto, hi jo mio!” 

Dijo al salir que pronto volveria. 

Al regresar de mi despacho, en- 
contre su esquela en mi cuarto. 


The first thing we did on landing 
was to hire an interpreter. 

Seeing Brutus among the con¬ 
spirators, Caesar exclaimed: 
“And thou too, Brutus, my 
son!” 

He said, when going out, that he 
would soon be back. 

On returning from my office, I 
found your note in my room. 




6 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§24 


As I entered the secretary’s office, 
I noticed that the two commis¬ 
sioners were speaking in a low 
tone, but with great agitation. 
We came very near signing the 
contract. 

The canoe came very near upset¬ 
ting. 

9. Tlie Infinitive Preceded by Con.-A phrase con¬ 
sisting of con and an infinitive is sometimes equivalent to a 
phrase formed by aunque, although , notwithstanding , and a 
time form of the verb. The tense to be used in this equiva¬ 
lent phrase depends on the time relations expressed by the 
other verbs in the sentence. 


At entrar yo & la secretaria, note 
que los dos comisionados habla- 
ban bajo, pero con grande agi- 
tacidn. 

Estuvimos at firmar el contrato. 

La cauoa estuvo at voltearse. 


No recibio mi consejo, con ser yo 
(or, aunque yo soy) su mejor 
amigo. 

No pudo obtener la mano de la 
joven actriz, con tener (or, 
aunque tenia) varios millones 
de pesos. 


He did not take my advice, 
although I am his best friend. 

He could not win the young 
actress’s hand, notwithstanding 
his being worth several million 
dollars. 


10. The Infinitive Pi*eceded by lie. — A phrase formed 
by the preposition de and an unmodified infinitive often 
follows a predicate adjective. The preposition is then 
generally rendered by the infinitive sign to. 


El espanol es dificil de apren- 
der. 

Esto no me parece bueno de 

comer. 

El problema no es facil de re¬ 
solver. 


Spanish is difficult to learn. 

This does not seem to me good to 
eat. 

The problem is not easy to solve. 


In all these examples, the quasi-reflexive form of the verb 
may be used in Spanish, and the passive voice in English, 
although the form just given is preferable. 


El espanol es dificil aprenderse. | Spanish is difficult to be learned. 





24 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


7 


There are cases, however, in which, while either the quasi¬ 
reflexive or the non-quasi-reflexive form may be employed 
in Spanish, only the passive voice is permissible in English. 


El capitolio de Albany me parecio The capitol of Albany seemed to 
muy digno de admiral* (or, me very worthy to be admired. 
de admirarse ). | 

If the infinitive, instead of forming part of the predicate, 
forms part of the subject, the preposition de should be 
omitted. 


Es diftcil aprender el espafiol. I It is difficult to learn Spanish. 

No es fdcil resolver este pro- It is not easy to solve this problem. 
blema. 

11. When the infinitive of a verb denoting feeling, 
emotion, hope, belief, or other similar mental state, is pre¬ 
ceded by de and a form of ser, it is generally rendered by 
to be followed by the participle of the verb. The Spanish 
infinitive may be used quasi-reflexively or not, at pleasure. 


Es de sentir (or, de sentirse) que 
paises tan ricos gasten sus 
fuerzas y su riqueza en guerras 
civiles. 

Eso es muy de temer (or, de te- 
merse). 

No es de creer (or, de creerse) que 
este tratado ponga fin a todas 
las dificultades. 

Es muy de desear (or, desearse) 
que el gobierno publique un 
mapa completo de las nuevas 
colonias. 


It is to be regretted that countries 
so rich should spend their 
strength and their wealth in 
civil wars. 

That is much to be feared. 

It is not to be believed that this 
treaty will put an end to all the 
difficulties. 

It is much to be desired that the 
government may publish a com¬ 
plete map of the new colonies. 


12. Ser de is idiomatically used before an infinitive, 
sometimes in the sense of to be surprising , to be remarkable , 
to be worth (looking at , etc.), sometimes in that of to be 
enough to , may well. These idioms can be more easily 
illustrated than explained. 




8 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


24 


Es de ver como esta mujer, ciega, 
sorda y muda, escribe sobre los 
temas mas complicados y difi- 
ciles. 

Era de ver el buen tratamiento 
que los revolucionarios daban k 
sus prisioneros. 

Los trabajos hidraulicos de los 
antiguos peruanos son de sor- 
prender a los ingenieros de 
nuestros propios dias. 

Esto es de volver loco a cual- 
quiera. 


It is surprising to see how this 
woman, blind, deaf, and mute, 
writes on the most complicated 
and difficult subjects. 

The good treatment that the revo¬ 
lutionists gave their prisoners 
was truly remarkable ( more lit¬ 
erally , worth noticing). 

The hydraulic works of the ancient 
Peruvians are enough to (or, 
may well) surprise the engineers 
of our own days. 

This is enough to make any one 
crazy. 


In these constructions, eosa, thing, may be inserted before 
de without changing the meaning of the sentence. 


Es eosa de ver como esta mujer, 
ciega, etc. 

Era eosa de ver el buen trata¬ 
miento, etc. 


It is a surprising thing how this 
woman, blind, etc. 

The good treatment, etc. was 
worth noticing. 


13. Tlie Infinitive After Verbs of Perception. 

Verbs like oir, to hear, and ver, to see, denoting perceptions, 
may take an infinitive or an infinitive phrase as accusative. 
It is necessary to distinguish three cases; namely: 

1. If the infinitive has neither subject nor accusative, it is 
usually rendered by the English present participle. 


Ohnos cantar en el cuarto si- 
guiente. 

Nunca he visto imprimir. 


We heard singing in the next 
room. 

I have never seen printing (done). 


With subjectless verbs, however, the construction is the 
same in English as in Spanish, except that in the former 
language the infinitive takes the indefinite subject it. 

&Ha visto usted lievar alguna Have you ever seen it snow? 
vez? 

iNo oyeron ustedes tronar? Did you not hear it thunder? 


2. If the infinitive has a subject, and no accusative, it is 
rendered by the English infinitive. In Spanish, the infinitive 






24 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


9 


generally precedes its subject; in English, the subject of the 
infinitive, which is really the accusative of a verbal time 
form, must precede the infinitive. 


Vi caei* la casa. 

Oimos pasar el tren. 

r 

Esta manana oi entrar al car¬ 
ter o. 

&Han visto ustedes bailai* a 
la Otero ?— Si, senor, la hemos 
visto bailar. 


I saw the house fall. 

We heard the train pass (or, 
go by). 

I heard the letter carrier come in 
this morning. 

Have you seen Miss Otero dance? 
—Yes, sir, we have. 


In the last example, la Otero is represented by la, for, 
although that name is the subject of the infinitive, it is the 
accusative of hemos visto. 

3. If the infinitive has an accusative, it is translated by 
the English participle, the latter being placed after the 
substantive rendering that accusative. 


Yo vi aliorcar al criminal. 

Oimos can tar un bellisimo trozo 
de bpera. 

/Ha visto usted imprimir un 
periodico ? 

Nunca habia visto matar a un 
hombre de una manera mas 
cobarde. 


( I saw the criminal hanged. 

We heard a very beautiful opera 
selection sung. 

Have you seen a newspaper 
printed? 

I had never seen a man killed in 
a more cowardly manner. 


This construction applies when the verb is preceded by an 
accusative case, which may be considered as the accusative 
either of the predicating verb or of the infinitive. 


Go oimos calumniar. 

Nunca la habia oido llarnar he- 
roina. 

Los vimos ultrajar de mil ma- 
neras, sin poder defenderlos. 


We heard him slandered. 

I had never heard her called a 
heroine. 

We saw them outraged in a thou¬ 
sand manners, without being 
able to defend them. 


14. With transitive verbs, it may sometimes not be 
clear whether a substantive following an infinitive is the sub¬ 
ject or the accusative of that infinitive. Thus, Oi llamar al 
cartero may mean either, I heard the letter carrier call, or, 





SPANISH GRAMMAR 


10 


§24 


I heard the letter carrier called. In such cases, ambiguity is 
removed by giving the sentence a different turn. 

Ol que el cartero llamaba. I heard the letter carrier call 

(literally , I heard that the let¬ 
ter carrier called). 

Oi que llamaban al cartero. I heard them call the letter carrier 

{or, I heard the letter carrier 
called). 


15. The expression oir decir may be rendered by to hear 
it said. 


“He oido decir que el sabado es 
un dia desagradable para los 
que no tienen mas que una 
camisa.” 


“I have heard it said that Satur¬ 
day is an unpleasant day for 
those having but one shirt.” 


Usually, however, to hear alone is employed in English —a 
construction never allowed in Spanish. 


Hemos oido decir que la casa de 
Figueroa y Compania ha que- 
brado. 

Ayer oi decir que el precio del 
carbon habia bajado. 

^Que ha oido usted decir de mi? 


We have heard that the firm of 
Figueroa and Company has 
failed. 

I heard yesterday that the price of 
coal had gone down. 

What have you heard about me? 


16. Oir hablar de is likewise rendered by to hear of, to 
hear about; and, conversely, to hear of should be rendered 
by oir hablar de, never by oir de. 


iNo ha oido usted hablar del 
nuevo proceso para la manu- 
factura del acero? 

He oido hablar mucho de esa can- 
tatriz. 

Hemos oido hablar de una com¬ 
pania de seguros que acaba de 
establecerse en Quito. 


Have you not heard of the new 
process for the manufacture of 
steel? 

I have beard a great deal about 
that singer. 

We have heard of an insurance 
company that has just been 
started in Quito. 


17. Tlie Infinitive After Mandar and Ilacer. — The 
construction of these verbs with infinitives is similar to that 
of ver and oir (Art. 13). When so construed, mandar is 






§24 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


11 


rendered by to order , and hacer by to make , except when the 
infinitive has an accusative (Art. 13, 3), in which case hacer is 
always, and mandar often, rendered by to have. Sometimes, 
an infinitive following mandar and having an accusative is 
better rendered by to be followed by the participle of the 
verb, while sometimes the infinitive is not translated at all. 


Mande venir a mi secretario. 
(Art. 13, 2.) 

Nos mandar on cal lax*. 

El doctor mando sangfi’ai* al pa- 
ciente. (Art. 13, 3.) 

iDonde mando usted liacei* ese 
terno ? 

Ayer mande liacei* un par de 
zapatos. 

Tengo que mandar liacei* una 
casaca. 

Pensamos mandar coiistruii* un 
ferrocarril de la ferreria a las 
minas. 

La semana pasada mande liacei* 
un saco, pero aun no esta termi- 
nado. 

Hemos mandado empacar esos 
generos en cajas pequenas, para 
poderlas trasportar en mulas. 

El juez hizo liablai* al reo. 

Se nos hizo salir del cuarto. 

El juez hizo traer al reo. 

Pensamos hacer coiistruii* un 
nuevo sistema de desagiies. 

Mi socio me escribio que hiciera 
despacliai* estos articulos por 
el vapor de manana. 

Todavia no hemos hecho auten- 
ticai* el conocimiento de em- 
barque. 


I ordered my secretary to come. 

We were ordered to keep silent. 

The doctor ordered the patient to 
be bled. 

Where did you have that suit 
made? 

Yesterday I ordered a pair of 
shoes made. 

I have to have a dress coat made. 

We intend to have a railroad built 
from the iron works to the mines. 

Last week I ordered a coat made, 
but it is not yet finished. 

We have ordered those goods to 
be packed in small boxes, so as 
to be able to transport them on 
mules. 

The judge made the culprit speak. 

We were made to go out of the 
room. 

The judge had the culprit brought. 

We intend to have a new sewerage 
system built. 

My partner wrote to me to have 
these articles sent off by to¬ 
morrow’s steamer. 

We have not yet had the bill of 
lading authenticated. 


18. Mandar , meaning to send , is used in elliptical expres¬ 
sions in which alguien, some one , is understood as its accusa¬ 
tive. The infinitive is then usually preceded by d. 




12 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


24 


Mande a preguntar k que 
hora sale el tren. 

Anoche mandamos a buscar un 
ejemplar de ese libro, pero fue 
imposible encontrar ninguno. 


Send (some one) to ask at what 
time the train leaves. 

Last night we sent (some one) to 
look for a copy of that book, 
but it was impossible to find 
any. 


19. Mandar decir is to send word. 


Le mandt decir a mi tio que 
estuviese aqui k las ocho. 


I sent word to my uncle to be 
here at eight. 


20. When hacer means to cause, to make, and is preceded 
by am accusative case and followed by a pronominal verb, 
the latter loses the pronominal case characteristic of this 
class of verbs; or, more properly speaking, the verb is not 
used pronominally. The same principle applies to mandar, 
to order, to command. 


Me hicieron acostar (not, acos- 
tar me). 

Nos mandar on sentar (not, sen- 
tarn. os). 


They made me go to bed. 

They ordered (or, asked) us to sit 
down. 


21. Tlie Infinitive Preceded by Que.— The expres¬ 
sions haber que, and tener que, followed by an infinitive, 
mean, respectively, to be necessary to, and to have to. Here qiie 
may be considered as the equivalent of the English infinitive 
sign to. 


Habia que impedir la anarquia 
que amenazaba la republica. 

Tuvimos que ceder a la fuerza. 


It was necessary to prevent the 
anarchy that threatened the 
republic. 

We had to yield to force. 


22. There are a few other verbs with which qtie is also 
used in the sense of to, although its employment is optional. 


Aun falta que probai’ que los 
filipinos sean capaces de go- 
bernarse a si mismos. 

Aun falta probar que los fili¬ 
pinos sean capaces de gober- 
narse k si mismos. 


It still remains to be proved that 
the Filipinos are capable of gov¬ 
erning themselves. 








§24 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


13 


23. The phrases no tener mds que, no haber mds qne, 
followed by an infinitive, are rendered by the only thing to 
do is to , or a similar expression. 


No hay mas que entregarse. 

No tenemos mds que entre- 
garnos. 


The only thing to do is to sur¬ 
render. 

We have nothing left but to sur¬ 
render. 


24. Elliptical Expressions.—The infinitive preceded 
by a relative occurs in a great many elliptical expressions 
in which the forms of poder, to be able , and often the ante¬ 
cedent of the relative, are understood. In the following 
sentences, there is no ellipsis, either in Spanish or in 
English: 


No tengo nada que pueda 
ponerme. 

No tengo dinero con que pue¬ 
da pagar mis deudas. 

Encontramos un lugar donde 
pudiinos desembarcar. 

No sabemos ningun mode 
como podamos refutar esa 
acusacion. 

No conociamos persona a quien 
pudiesemos dirigirnos. 

No sabemos cosa que podamos 
hacer. 


I have nothing that I can put on. 

I have no money with which I may 
pay my debts. 

We found a place where we could 
land. 

We do not know any way in which 
we can refute that accusation. 

We did not know any person to 
whom we might address our¬ 
selves. 

We do not know anything that 
we can do. 


While these sentences are grammatically correct, they are 
both inelegant and unusual, and would generally be replaced 
by the elliptical forms given below. As will be observed, 
the ellipsis cannot always be carried so far in English as in 
Spanish. 


No tengo que ponerme. 

No tengo con que pagar mis 
deudas. 

Encontrhmos donde desembarcar. 
No sabemos como refutar esa 
acusacion. 


I have nothing to put on. 

I have no money to pay my debts 
with. 

We found where to land. 

We do not know how to refute 
that accusation. 





14 SPANISH GRAMMAR §24 


No conociamos k quien dirigirnos. 
No sabemos que hacer. 


We did not know any one that we 
might address ourselves to. 

We do not know what to do. 


25. Tlie Infinitive in Imperative and in Exclama¬ 
tory Sentences. —This verbal derivative occasionally takes 
the place of the imperative, as in the following- examples: 


“Obedecer, y callemos.” 

“Repito lo que dije a ustedes en 
otra [carta] mia: estarse quietas, 
y no tentar a la fortuna.” 

Resistir hasta que perezca el 
ultimo soldado. 


“Let us obey, and be silent.” 

“I repeat what I said to you in 
another letter of mine: keep 
still, and do not tempt fortune.” 

Resist until the last soldier has 
perished. 


26. It is also employed in exclamations, and in interrog¬ 
ative sentences implying surprise, indignation, or some 
such sudden* emotion. 


Ahora, / escaparnos! 
g,Pedir nosotros la paz? — jNunca, 
nunca! 


Now, to escape! 

We to ask for peace? —Never, 
never! 


THE GERUND 

27. The Gerund as an Adverb. —One of the most 
common functions of the gerund is to modify a verb, 
after the manner of an adverb, although at the same time 
expressing a condition or action of the subject or accusative 
of the verb. 


Pedro vino cantando. 

Lo encontre eseribiendo. 

Alii vienen nuestras ninitas co- 

rriendo. 

Ese hombre se enriquecio ro- 

bando. 


Peter came singing. 

I found him writing. 

There come our little girls run¬ 
ning. 

That man made himself rich by 
robbery ( more literally , by rob¬ 
bing). 


As will be observed, the preposition by , which followed by 
a present participle indicates manner or means, is not trans¬ 
lated into Spanish, the gerund alone being equivalent to the 
English prepositional phrase thus formed. 







§24 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


15 


Hay doctrinas y teorias que se | There are doctrines and theories 
combaten mas facilmente des- that are more easily fought by 
preciandolas que refutandolas. \ ignoring than by refuting them. 

The progressive form of verbs is but a special case of the 
adverbial function of the gerund. In that form, the gerund 
modifies the verb estar, and indicates besides a condition or 
state of the subject. 

Mi hermana estaba cantando y My sister was singing, and my 
mi padre estaba escribiendo. father was writing. 

28. Verbal Character of the Gerund.—This deriva¬ 
tive, like the infinitive, differs from time forms in that it 
does not by itself indicate time with respect to the moment 
of speaking, and resembles them in that it can have a subject 
or an accusative, and be modified by abverbs. 

Encontre a don Pedro leyendo \ I found Mr. Peter reading your 
su carta muy atenta- letter very attentively, and com- 
mente, y comparandola, con paring it with mine, 
la mia. 

In this example, don Pedro is the subject of both leyendo 
and comparando; leyendo has the accusative su carta and is 
modified by the adverbial phrase muy atentamente; and 
comparando has the accusative la. It was explained in Part 2 
that a pronominal case is placed after, forming one word 
with, the infinitive, the gerund, or the imperative, when 
these verbal forms require such cases. 

The progressive form may be viewed in two manners: 
either as a compound form of the verb whose gerund occurs 
in it, in which case pronominal cases should follow the rules 
applying to compound forms with haber , that is, should pre¬ 
cede the auxiliary; or as a phrase consisting of estar modi¬ 
fied by the gerund of the verb, in which case the pronominal 
case, being treated as referring to the gerund alone, should 
follow the gerund. As the progressive form can in all cases 
be interpreted in both of these ways, the two corresponding 
positions of the pronominal case are equally proper. 



16 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§24 


IjO hemos estado aguardando 
desde las tres. 

Hemos estado aguardandoYo des¬ 
de las tres. 


We have been waiting for you 
since three o’clock. 


In the first of these two forms, the verb is hemos estado 
aguardando , which is the compound present of estar aguar¬ 
dando. In the second, hemos estado , that is, the compound 
present of estar , is considered as the verb in the sentence, 
and aguardando as an adverbial modifier which, partaking in 
some respects of the nature of a verb, takes the accusative lo. 


29. Tlie Gerund as the Equivalent of Either a 
Conjunction or a Relative Adverb and a Time Form. 
In stating a cause, reason, manner, or circumstance, the 
gerund of a verb is used as equivalent to, and may take the 
place of, either a conjunction or a relative adverb followed 
by a time form of the same verb. 


El hombre, creyendo que el uni- 
verso habia sido hecho para el, 
creyo tambien que la tierra era 
el centro de la creacion fisica. 

Como el hombre creia que el 
universo habia sido hecho 
para el, etc. 

Siendome imposible vender aqui 
esas mercancias, se las de- 
- vuelvo. 

Como me es imposible vender 
aqui esas mercancias, etc. 

Es dificil no cometer errores 
tratando un asunto tan vasto. 

« Es dificil no cometer errores 
cuando uno trata un asunto 
tan vasto. 

El almirante, conociendo el ca- 
racter traicionero de los indios, 
resolvio no desembarcar de 
noche. 

Como el almirante conocia el 
caracter traicionero de los 
. indios, etc. 


'Man, believing that the universe 
had been made for him, be¬ 
lieved also that the earth was 
the center of physical creation. 

As man believed that the uni¬ 
verse had been made for him, 
etc. 

It being impossible for me to 
sell those wares here, I return 

■ them to you. 

As it is impossible for me to sell 
those wares here, etc. 

It is difficult not to commit errors 
when treating so vast a subject. 

■ It is difficult not to commit 

errors when one is treating so 
vast a subject. 

The admiral, knowing the 
treacherous disposition of the 
Indians, decided not to land 
at night. 

As the admiral knew the treach¬ 
erous disposition of the Indi- 

. ans, etc. 














§24 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


17 


Reemplazando los valores de a 
y b, y resolviendo la ecuacion, 
resulta. 

■ Si se reemplazan (or, Si reem- 
piazamos) los valores de a y b, 
y se resuelve {or, y resolvemos) 

. la ecuacion, resulta. 

Estas dos palabras se combinan 
formando una sola. 

Estas dos palabras se combinan 
. y forman una sola. 

El ladron, sacando un punal de 
debajo de la capa, salto sobre 
el indefenso pasajero. 

• 

El ladron sacd un punal de 

debajo de la capa, y salto, etc. 

1 

Entregue su carta al gobernador, 
quien, habiendola leido muy 
atentamente, me dijo que vol- 
viera al dia siguiente por la 
contestacion. 

Entregue su carta al gobernador, 
quien, luego que la hubo leido 
muy atentamente, etc. 


Replacing the values of a and 
b, and solving the equation, 
there results. 

If the values of a and b are 
replaced, and the equation is 
solved, there results. 

These two words combine form¬ 
ing a single one. 

These two words combine and 

. form a single one. 

The robber, drawing out a dag¬ 
ger from under his cloak, 
sprang upon the defenseless 
wayfarer. 

The robber drew out a dagger 
from under his cloak, and 

. sprang, etc. 

I delivered your letter to the 
governor, who, having read it 
very attentively, told me to 
come back the following day 
for the answer. 

I delivered your letter to the 
governor, who, when he had 
read it very attentively, etc. 


The combination habiendo leido is the compound gerund 
of leer. In general, the compound gerund of any verb is 
formed by combining the gerund of haber with the participle 
of the verb. 


30. Tlie Gerund as an Adjective. — It was stated in 
Part 2 that the gerund cannot perform the office of a pure 
adjective, or, what is the same thing, take the place of a 
relative pronoun and a time form in a restrictive proposition. 
There are two exceptions to this rule: 

1. The gerund hirvie?ido, of hervir, to boil , is used 
as an adjective in the expression agua hirviendo, boiling 
water. 

2. In exclamations and in short descriptive statements, 
such as occur in the titles of pictures, the gerund of a verb 
denoting an action may be employed as an adjective. 











18 SPANISH GRAMMAR §24 


El general Washington cruzando 
el Delaware. 

Anibal jurando odio eterno A los 
romanos. 

jUn hombre ahogandose! 


General Washington crossing the 
Delaware. 

Hannibal swearing eternal hatred 
to the Romans. 

A man drowning! 


31. The Gerund After En. — The only preposition that 
can take a gerund as its object is en, in combinations deno¬ 
ting immediate anteriority. This preposition is then ren¬ 
dered by on, if the present participle is used in English, or 
by when, after, as soon as, or a similar time expression, if a 
time form is used. 


E?i acabando esta carta, atender6 
A ese asunto. 

En almorzando saldremos. 


Dijo que, en pasando el verano, 
vendria A vernos. 


On finishing this letter, I shall 
attend to that matter. 

We shall go out immediately after 
breakfast ( Literally , after break¬ 
fasting) . 

He said that, as soon as the sum¬ 
mer was over, he would come 
to see us. 


There is a peculiar idiom that consists in adding que and a 
time form of the verb to a gerund preceded by en. The 
addition of this phrase does not alter the meaning of the 
gerund. Thus, en llegando que lleguemos is equivalent to 
en llegando, on arriving, on our arrival, or, as soon as we 
arrive. Of course, the mere expression en llegando does not 
show what the subject is to which the gerund refers, but the 
rest of the sentence always does. 


En llegando al puerto, envie mis | 
credenciales al ministro colom- 1 
biano. 

En llegando del teatro, empezaron 
A discutir los meritos y defectos 
de las actrices. 


On arriving at the port, I sent my 
credentials to the Colombian 
minister. 

When they arrived from the thea¬ 
ter, they began to discuss the 
merits and defect's of the ac¬ 
tresses. 


The subject of the first two of these gerunds is yo, I; 
that of the second, ellos, they. 





§24 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


19 


32. The Gerund With Andar and Ir. —Ordinarily, 

ir means to go, and andar, either to go, to move, or to walk. 
Followed by a gerund, however, these verbs undergo a 
change of meaning: ir then either means to begin, or denotes 
a gradual or continued performance of the action, or realiza¬ 
tion of the condition, denoted by the gerund; while andar 
means to be, with the implication of motion or action of 
some kind. 


Voy entendiendo el objeto de su 
visita. 

El anda buscando una colocacion. 

Vaya arreglando los baules mien- 
tras yo voy al correo. 

Ya vamos principiando ahacernos 
entender en espanol. 

Se va haciendo tarde. 

La gente anda diciendo que listed 
piensa divorciarse. 


I begin to understand the object 
of your visit. 

He is looking {or, in more famil¬ 
iar language, He is looking 
around) for a situation. 

Begin to pack {or, You may be 
packing) the trunks while I go 
to the post office. 

We already begin to make our¬ 
selves understood in Spanish. 

It is growing late. 

People are saying {or, There is a 
rumor going around) that you 
intend to obtain a divorce. 


33. The English expressions to be going, to be cotni?ig, are 
rendered by ir and venir, respectively, and never literally. 


Tengo mucho siieno, y voy a acos- 
tarme. 

^Adonde va usted, senor Aldana? 

i Va?i ustedes al teatro esta noche? 

iAdonde iba usted tan aprisa esta 
manana? 

Mi padre viene a comer conmigo 
esta noche. 


I am very sleepy, and am going to 
bed. 

Where are you going, Mr. Aldana? 

. Are you going to the theater to¬ 
night? 

Where were you going so fast this 
morning? 

My father is coming to dine with 
me this evening. 


34. Gerunds as Pure Adverbs. —A few gerunds are 
used as pure adverbs. Among them may be mentioned 
callando, from callar, to be (or keep) silent, and corriendo, 
from correr, to run. The former of these two gerunds is 
used in the sense of calladamente, quietly, silently, and the 





20 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


24 


second, in that of aprisa, fast, quickly. As in the case of 
other adverbs, diminutive endings are, in familiar and lively 
style, added to these adverb gerunds to intensify their mean¬ 
ing. (See Part 5). 


Entre callandito, no sea que lo 
oigan. 

Alfredo, vaya corriendXto y llame 
al doctor. 


Go in very quietly, lest they should 
hear you. 

Alfred, go and call the doctor as 
quickly as you can (or, Alfred! 
quick! run for the doctor). 


THE PARTICIPLE-ABSOLUTE CLAUSES 


35. The Adjective Participle and the Substantive 
Participle Defined. —When the participle combines with 
haber for the formation of compound tenses, it is called the 
substantive participle; when it performs other functions, 
the adjective participle. The term participle employed 
by itself without any qualification serves to denote the adjec¬ 
tive participle, unless direct reference is made to compound 
tenses. 

36. Compound Tenses Formed With Ser. — In poetry, 
and in a few common phrases, the verb ser, like to be in 
English, is used instead of haber for the formation of com¬ 
pound tenses. In all such cases, however, haber is equally 
proper in Spanish, as to have is in English. The construc¬ 
tion with ser differs from that with haber in that, while in the 
compound form with the latter verb the participle is invari¬ 
able and must follow the auxiliary, in the compound form 
with ser the participle agrees with its subject in gender and 
number, and may precede the auxiliary. 


Es llegadix (or, LlegadSi es) la 
hora de la prueba. 

Cuando el oficial entro, los pri- 
sioneros eran idos. 

Mis padres eran muertos en J 
tonces. 

Era venidsi la ocasion de redimir 
el honor de la armada. 


The hour of trial is come. 

When the officer entered, the 
prisoners were gone. 

My parents were dead (or, had 
died) then. 

The occasion to redeem the honor 
of the navy was come. 





24 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


21 


In all cases of doubt, the learner should employ haber , 
which is always proper, while ser seldom is. 

Ha llegado la hora de la prueba. 

Cuando el oficial entro, los prisioneros se habiatt ido. 

Mis padres habian muerto entonces. 

Habia venido la ocasion de redimir el honor de la armada. 

37. The Adjective Participle. — This verbal derivative 
usually performs the functions of a pure adjective, agreeing 
with its substantive in number and gender. Unlike the 
infinitive and the gerund, it takes neither a subject nor an 
accusative, and, in short, is in no way construed like a verb. 
The only exception to this rule is the participle combined 
with ser in the passive voice, which was fully treated in 
Part 7. 


38. Absolute Clauses. —In English grammar, the term 
clause is given to each of the propositions forming a com¬ 
plex sentence (see Part 6, The Subjunctive and the 
Hypothetic Mode). In Spanish, this term has a wider 
signification, it being applied to any group of words, 
whether containing a verbal time form or not, serving to 
explain or characterize a preceding word or group of words. 

An absolute clause is an explanatory or descriptive sub¬ 
stantive phrase whose principal substantive (if there are more 
than one) is the subject or accusative of a tacit gerund, such 
as siendo, being; teniendo, having; trayendo, bringing; 
etc., or the object of the tacit preposition con, with. The 
tacit gerund is always plainly indicated by the context. 


Llegamos en la estacion de las 
lluvias, los rios crecidos y los 
caminos impasables. 

Empezo entonces Jesus su memo¬ 
rable marcha hacia el Golgota, 
& cuestas el instrumento igno- 
minioso de su muerte, abando- 
nado de sus amigos y escarnecido 
por sus verdugos, y, al mismo 


We arrived in the rainy season, 
the rivers being overflooded and 
the roads impassable. 

Jesus then began his memorable 
march toward Golgotha, (car¬ 
rying) on his shoulders the 
ignominious instrument of his 
death, (being) forsaken by his 
friends and mocked by his 



22 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§ 24 


tiempo, la resignacidn en el executioners; and, at the same 
rostro y el perdon en el corazon. time, (showing) resignation in 

his countenance and (feeling) 
forgiveness in his heart (or, 
better , with resignation depicted 
on his countenance, and his 
heart filled with forgiveness). 

In these examples, estando, being , might be introduced 
before los rios; llevando, carrying , or con, with, before 
d cuestas; estando, being, or viendose, seeing himself, before 
abandonado and escarnecido; mostrando, showing, or con, 
with, before la resignacidn; and sintiendo, feeling, or con, 
with, before perdon. The elliptic form is, however, much 
more elegant, and better adapted to elevated style. 


39. The Pai*ticiple in Absolute Clauses.— The par¬ 
ticiple is of frequent occurrence in introducing an absolute 
clause. Although, in such constructions, it sometimes takes 
the place of a compound gerund, it agrees in number and 
gender with the substantive it modifies. If the gerund habiendo 


is expressed, the participle 
follows the compound gerund 

El presidente, terminadSL la carta 
que estaba escribiendo , se levanto 
de su asiento. 

Muertix la emperatriz, su hijo 
adopto una politica mas liberal. 

Destruidos los puentes por la cre- 
ciente, era imposible cruzar el 
rio. 

DichSLS estas palabras, salio con 
precipitacion. 


becomes invariable, unless it 
of ser (habiendo sido ). 

The president, having finished the 
letter he was writing, rose from 
his seat. 

The empress being dead, her son 
adopted a more liberal policy. 

The bridges having been destroyed 
by the freshet, it was impossible 
to cross the river. 

Having said these words, he left 
hurriedly. 


Supplying the tacit gerunds, these sentences may be 
replaced by the following: 

El presidente, habiendo terminado la carta que estaba escribiendo, 
se levantd de su asiento. 

Habiendo muerto la emperatriz, su hijo adopto una politica mas 
liberal. 




24 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


23 


Habiendo si do los puentes destru Idos por la creciente, era imposi- 
ble cruzar el rio. 

Habiendo dicho estas palabras, salio con precipitacion. 

40. The principal substantive in an absolute clause is 
often omitted, being understood. 


El presidente del senado leyo el 
segundo parrafo del mensaje, 
y, leido , procedio a interpre- 
tarlo. 


The speaker of the senate read 
the second paragraph of the 
message, and having read it 
(more literally , and, it having 
been read), proceeded to inter¬ 
pret it. 


41. Tlie Participle Followed by Que and a Verb. 
As will be observed, the participle introducing an absolute 
clause usually indicates immediate anteriority. The same 
relation may be expressed by a compound preterit preceded 
by luigo que , cuando , etc. (See Part 8, Primary Meanings of 
the Tenses.) 


El presidente, luigo que bubo terminado la carta que estaba 
escribiendo, etc. 

Luego que hubo dicho estas palabras, salio con precipitacion. 

El presidente del senado leyo el segundo parrafo del mensaje, y 
luego que lo linbo leido, etc. 


A notable construction consists in omitting the adverb 
Inigo, placing the participle followed by que before the 
preterit of haber. The first two of the three sentences just 
given may be replaced by these, which have the same 
meanings, respectively: 

El presidente, terminado que hubo la carta que estaba escri¬ 
biendo, etc. 

Dicho qu e hubo estas palabras, salio con precipitacion. 


This inversion is not permissible when the compound 
preterit is accompanied by a pronominal case, as in the third 
example given at the beginning of this article. 



24 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


24 


42. A similar inversion occurs with the verb ser , both in 
the passive voice and when ser takes the place of haber in 


compound tenses (Art. 36). 

Llegada que fue la hora, las 
carabelas de Colon se dieron k 
la vela. 

Mnerto que fuf Cesar, Bruto se 
puso k la cabeza del ejercito 
republicano. 


When the hour arrived, Colum¬ 
bus’s caravels set sail. 

Caesar having been killed, Brutus 
placed himself at the head of 
the republican army. 


43. The constructions treated in the last two articles are 
but special cases of the general rule that que , placed between 
a participle and a verb, is equivalent to cuando, when , fol¬ 
lowed by the verb and the participle. 


Acabado que hay a (Cuanclo 
hay a acabado ) este inventario, 
le dare los cheques que usted 
desea. 

Construida que este la casa 
(Cuando la casa este cons¬ 
truida ), nos mudaremos k ella. 


When I have finished this inven¬ 
tory, I will give you the checks 
you wish. 

As soon as the house is built, we 
shall move into it. 


44. Tlie Participle Preceded by Antes De, Despues 
De, Etc.—The time expressions antes de, before; despues 
de, after; luego de, immediately after; and a few others 
may precede a participle in absolute clauses, but, instead of 
a gerund, one of the infinitives ser , estar , or haber is under¬ 
stood before the participle. In English, however, the pres¬ 
ent participle is employed, as the infinitive cannot be the 
object of a preposition. 


Despues de salvados {haber 
salvado) los pasajeros, se em- 
pezo a sacar el cargamento en 
remolcadores y botes de remos. 

Antes de recibida {haber reci- 
bido) la noticia, le habiamos 
enviado a usted un cablegrama. 

Despues de muerto {haber 
muerto) el jefe, sus seguidores 
se desbandaron. 


The passengers having been 
saved, the cargo began to be 
removed in lighters and row¬ 
boats. 

Before receiving the news, we 
had sent you a cablegram. 

After the chieftain was killed, his 
followers disbanded. 





§24 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


25 


Enego de dada (ser dada) la 
orden que excluia a los jesuitas 
de los cargos publicos, se pro- 
cedio & llenar con empleados 
laicos los pnestos que aquellos 
ocupaban. 


The order excluding the Jesuits 
from public offices having been 
given, measures were taken to 
fill with lay employes the posi¬ 
tions that they (the Jesuits) 
occupied. 


This use of the participle is mainly adapted, and almost 
exclusively restricted, to clauses referring to quasi-reflex¬ 
ive constructions. 


USES OF SOME IMPORTANT VERBS 


ACABAR 

45. Acabar, to finish; also, to end, and to come to an end. 


Aun no hemos acabado el sobre- 
todo de usted. 

Napoleon acabo sus dias en Santa 
Elena. 

Esta novela acaba muy mal. 


We have not yet finished your 
overcoat. 

Napoleon ended his days at St. 
Helena. 

This novel ends very poorly. 


46. Acabar se, to be ended , to be over; also, to become 
exhausted. The preterit and the compound present of this 
verb are often rendered by the present of the corresponding 
English verb. 

Ya se acabo la guerra. I The war is already over. 

Se ha acabado el oro en las minas ! The gold in the mines of Peru is 
del Peru. j exhausted. 

47. With a dative case, acabar se is construed like ocu- 
rrirse and figurarse (see Part 7, Pronominal Verbs), and may 
usually be rendered by to run out of. 


Se nos acabo el carbon. 
Habiendose les acabado los vive- 
res, los exploradores tuvieron 
que alimentarse de sus perros. 
Se me ha acabado la esperanza. 


We ran out of coal. 

Having run out of provisions, the 
explorers had to feed on their 
dogs. 

I have lost hope {more literally, 
My hope is exhausted). 







26 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§24 


48. Acabar de. — This phrase, followed by an infinitive, 
is sometimes equivalent to the English to finish followed by 
a present participle, sometimes to the expression to have just 
followed by a past participle (literal equivalent of the 
Spanish participle). The circumstances always indicate 


which of the two meanings is 

Cuando acabe de tradticir esas 
circulares, haga sacar dos copias 
de la traduccion. 

Acabamos de recibir su muy 
atenta carta del cuatro del 
pasado. 

La funcion acababa de prin- 
cipiar cuando se descubrio el 
fuego. 

Creo que el doctor Pena acaba 
de salir. 


intended. 

When you have finished trans¬ 
lating those circulars, have two 
copies of the translation taken. 

We have just received your kind 
favor of the 4th ultimo ( literally , 
your very attentive letter of the 
4th past). 

The performance had just begun 
when the fire was discovered. 

I think Dr. Pena has just gone 
out. 


49. Alcanzar, to reach; 
both senses. 

Hagame el favor de alcanzarme 
ese libro. 

El posta nos alcanzo en el puente. 

50. Alcanzar a ver, to 
tance; alcanzarse a ver, 
discernible. 

De la cumbre del cerro de San 
Juan alcanzamos a ver la ciudad. 
De alii alcanzdbamos d ver la boca 
del rio. 

Desde el vapor se alcanzaba a ver 
el puente colgante de Brooklyn. 
Aun no se alcatiza a ver tierra. 


also, to overtake: transitive in 


Please reach me that book. 

The courier overtook us at the 
bridge. 

espy , to descry, to see in the dis- 
be seen in the distance , to be 

From the top of St. John Hill we 
discerned the city. 

From there we could see the 
mouth of the river in the dis¬ 
tance. 

From the steamer we could see 
the Brooklyn suspension bridge. 

We cannot see land yet ( literally , 
Land cannot yet be seen). 







24 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


27 


51. In general, alcanzar d, followed by an infinitive 
denoting perception, indicates effort or difficulty; followed 


by an infinitive denoting an 
denotes capacity, possibility, 
be rendered by to be able, can. 

Aunque hablaban en voz muy | 
baja, alcance a oir varias 
frases referentes a la conspira- j 
cion. 

No alcanzo a comprender la 
ldgica de semejante argumento. 


act of the understanding, it 
In the latter case, it may 

Although they were speaking in a 
very low voice, I overheard {or, 
could make out) several phrases 
relating to the conspiracy. 

I cannot understand the logic of 
such an argument. 


ALEGRAP.SE 

52. This verb means to be glad, to rejoice. It is usually 
followed by de, but this preposition may be omitted-before 
an infinitive or a proposition. If the cause of the feeling 
denoted by the verb is expressed by a proposition, this prop¬ 
osition should be introduced by the announcing qiie, and its 
verb should be subjunctive. 


Me alegro del buen resultado de 
su empresa. 

Nos alegramos de que usted) 
este mejor. 

Nos alegramos que usted este j 
mejor. J 

Me alegro mucho de verlo. 1 

Me alegro mucho verlo. J 


I am glad of the good result of 
your enterprise. 

We are glad that you are better. 
I am very glad to see you. 


ANDAR 

53. This verb means to go, in the general sense of to 
move; it also means to walk, in the sense of to be moving 
about, to be on the go. When to go means motion to or 
toward a definite place, it is rendered by ir; and when 
to walk is taken literally in the sense of self-locomotion, it is 
rendered by caminar. The combination irandando (literally, 
to go going ) means to be going , to be moving. 





28 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


24 


Mi reloj no anda bien. —El mio 
no anda , ni bien ni mal. 

Estoy cansadisimo, pues he estado 
andando (or, caminando) todo 
el dia. 

El caballo no quiere andar. 

Anoche fuimos al teatro. 

Manana iremos a visitar el museo. 

Este ninito todavia no cantina. 

El vapor va andando muy aprisa. 

El tren iba andando a razon de 
quince leguas por hora. 


My watch does not go well. — Mine 
does not go, either well or badly. 

I am exceedingly tired, for I have 
been walking the whole day. 

The horse will not go. 

We went to the theater last night. 

We shall go to visit the museum 
tomorrow. 

This little boy does not walk yet. 

The steamer is going very fast. 

The train was going at the rate of 
fifteen leagues per hour. 


BEBER 

54. This verb means to drink , but is an unrefined term 
seldom applied to people, except in the sense of to drink 
liquor (usually with the implication that the person drinks 
to excess). In polite language, it is replaced by tomar, 
to take. 


El caballo esta bebiendo. 

Juan Lopez se ha arruinado be¬ 
biendo y jugando. 

La senorita Amelia esta tomando 
cafe. 


The horse is drinking. 

John Lopez has ruined himself by 
drinking and gambling. 

Miss Amelia is drinking coffee. 


CABER 

55. Primary Meaning:. —This verb literally means to 
be containable in or capable of being put into or through; there 
to be room for.. It usually precedes its subject, and may be 
rendered either by to go into , to go through , or there to be room 
for , or by changing the construction and employing the verb 
to hold , as in some of the following examples: 


En esta caja no caben mas bo- 
tellas. 

Me parece que por este agujero 
no cabe un hombre. 


This box does not hold any more 
bottles. 

It seems to me that a man cannot 
get through this hole (or, that 
this hole is not large enough 
for a man to go through). 







24 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


29 


En este teatro caben seis mil per¬ 
sonas. 

Aqui no cabe mas gente. 


This theater holds six thousand 
persons. 

There is no room here for any 
more people. 


The object of the preposition en in the first and in the 
third example may be treated as a dative, a being substituted 
for en, and a dative case used before the verb. 

A esta caja no le caben m&s botellas. 

A este teatro le caben seis mil personas. 


56. Extended Meaning 
ployed to indicate capability < 

Semejantes fantasias no caben 
sino en un animo enfermo. 

Eso no cabe en cabeza humana. 


57. Cabei'le a nno, to ft 
fortune, etc. 

Nos cupo muy mala suerte. 

A nnestros deseendientes 
les cabra mejor suerte que la 
que nos ha cabido a lioso- 
tros. 


— By extension, caber is em- 
adaptability. 

Such fancies cannot be enter¬ 
tained but by a diseased mind 
(or, Such fancies can occur but 
to a diseased mind). 

That is inconceivable, or, No one 
would think of such a thing 
( literally , No human brain 
can hold that). 

I to one, to have: said of fate, 

We had very bad luck. 

A better lot will fall to our de¬ 
scendants than that which has 
fallen to us. 


58. Si cabe, if that is possible. 


Supongamos, si cabe, que Espana 
venza a los Estados Unidos. 


Let us suppose, if that is possi¬ 
ble, that Spain may defeat the 
United States. 


COBRAR ’ 

59. The following are the commonest meanings of this 
verb: 

1. To demand payment; and, when the demand is repeat¬ 
edly made, to press for payment, to dun. 







30 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§24 


Hoy voy a cobrarles a Gonzalez 
Hijos lo que me deben. 

Les hemos cobrado mucho a esos 
hombres, pero aun no nos han 
pagado. 

Le pagare cuando pueda: hagame 
el favor de no cobrarme mas. 

Toral y Perez nos han escrito una 
larga carta cobrandonos lo que 
les debemos. 

Hace mas de seis meses que Nu¬ 
nez y Cia. nos deben esa suma, 
y creo que no nos la pagar&n si 
no les cobramos. Escribales una 
carta cobrandoles, y digales que 
no podemos aguardarlos mas. 


2. To collect money due; also 

Aun no hemos podido cobrar esta 
cuenta. 

dCu&nto ha cobrado usted hoy? — 

De las ocho cuentas que usted 
me dijo que cobrara, no he 
podido cobrar sino tres, que 
ascienden k unos $125. 

Tenga la bondad de ir al banco y 
cobrar (or, hacer efectivo) este 
cheque. 

3. To charge. 

En ese restaurante cobran (or, 
llevan) demasiado. 


Today I am going to ask Gonza¬ 
lez Sons for what they owe me. 

We have demanded payment from 
those men many times, but they 
have not yet paid us. 

I shall pay you when I can; please 
do not dun me any more. 

Toral and Perez have written us 
a long letter asking us to pay 
them what we owe them. 

Nunez and Co. have owed us that 
amount for over a month, and 
I think they will not pay us if 
we do not ask them for it. 
Write them a letter asking them 
to send the money, and tell 
them we cannot wait for them 
any longer. 

, to have . . . . cashed. 

We have not yet been able to col¬ 
lect this bill. 

How much have you collected to¬ 
day?—Of the eight bills you 
told me to collect, I have been 
able to collect only three, which 
amount to some $125. 

Please go to the bank and have 
this check cashed. 


They charge too much at that 
restaurant. 


CREER 

60. This verb serves to denote: 

1. Conviction or faith: it is then rendered by to believe. 


iCree usted en Dios? 

“Quien en mi creyere , se sal- 
vard.” 


Do you believe in God? 
“Whosoever shall believe in me, 
shall be saved.” 








24 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


31 


2. Conjecture: it is then rendered by to think. 


Creo que el vapor llegara hoy 6 
manana. 

<;Esta aqui el senor Toral? —No, 
senor; pero creo que volvera 
pronto. 


I think the steamer will arrive to¬ 
day or tomorrow. 

Is Mr. Toral here? —No, sir, but 
I think he will soon return. 


CUMPLIR 

61. Non-Prononiinal Form.— This form is employed: 
1. In the sense of to fulfil (as one’s duty), or to keep (as 
one’s word). It may be used either as a transitive verb, 
or as an intransitive verb followed by con. Its accusative 


(or the preposition con and 
being understood. 

Quien no cumple su palabra no 
merece el respeto de sus seme- 
jantes. 

“La Inglaterra espera que cada 
cual cumplird con su deber.” 
Me dijo que vendria esta manana, 
pero no cumplio (that is, no 
cumplio su promesa). 

Siento mucho no haberte cutnplido 
(that is, no haberte ctimplido mi 
promesa) , pero realmente me 
fu6 imposible venir. 


its object) is often omitted, 


He who does not keep his word 
does not deserve the respect of 
his fellow beings. 

“England expects that every one 
will do his duty.” 

He told me he would come this 
morning, but he did not keep 
his promise. 

I regret very much having dis¬ 
appointed you (not having kept 
my promise), but it was really 
impossible for me to come. 


2. With an accusative denoting a number of years, 
months, etc., in the sense of to reach the age of, to be.... old; 
and followed by aiios, years, alone, in the sense of to be one's 


birthday. 

iCuantos ahos cumple usted 
hoy? —Hoy cumplo treinta 
ahos. 

Mi ninita cumplira seis meses 
manana. 

iCuando cumple usted ahos? 


How old are you today ( more 
literally, How many years are 
you today)? —I am thirty years 
old today. 

My little girl will be six months 
old tomorrow. 

When is your birthday? 






32 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


24 


62. Pronominal Form.— This form generally means 
to be fulfilled; with reference to time, it means to expire. 


Los evangelios profetizan muchas 
cosas que no se hati cumplido, 
ni es probable que se cumplan. 

El plazo se cumple manana. 


The Gospels prophesy many 
things that have not been ful¬ 
filled, nor is it likely that they 
will be. 

The time expires tomorrow. 


DAE 

63. The primary meaning of this verb is to give. It has 
a great many others, only a few of which can be given here. 

1. To take. 


dar un paseo; dar un paso | to take a walk; to take a step 


2. To strike (the hour). (See Part 8, Subjectless Verbs.) 

3. To cause , to give. 

Esta leccion me ha dado mucho This lesson has given me a great 
trabajo. deal of trouble (or, better, I have 

found this lesson very difficult). 

4. Followed by a noun denoting an action, it expresses 
the performance of that action. 


voz, grito, shout, cry; golpe, blow; quejido, groan 

dar voces; dar un grito to shout, to cry out aloud; to 

scream 

dar golpes; dar un quejido to strike; to groan 


When it means to strike , it often takes the preposition de. 
bofetada, slap in the face 

Le dieron de bofetadas. | They slapped his face. 

5. Dar lugar, to give rise , to give motive , to give cause. 


Procediendo asi daremos lugar a 
que se nos acuse de egoismo. 

Los abusos de Espana dieron 
lugar a la guerra hispano- 
americana. 


By thus acting we shall give cause 
to be accused of selfishness. 

The abuses of Spain gave rise to 
the Spanish-American war. 


6. With a dative case, and the name of a disease as a 
subject, it is rendered by to be taken with , to have , the subject 







24 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


33 


of the English sentence representing the person represented 
in Spanish by the dative case. 

Anoche me di6 fiebre. I was taken with fever last night. 

A mi me cla dolor de cabeza con - I often have headache, 
frecuencia. 


DEBER 

64. Simple Tenses.— This verb is employed: 

1. In the sense of to owe— its primary signification. 


iCuanto debe usted? 

Toral y Compania me han debido 
esa suma como tres anos. 

Debemos a los esfuerzos de la com¬ 
pania de segnros el que nues- 
tros almacenes no fuesen com- 
pletamente destruidos. 


How much do you owe? 

Toral and Company have owed 
me that amount about three 
years. 

We owe it to the efforts of the 
insurance company that our 
warehouses were not completely 
destroyed. 


2. Followed by an infinitive, to denote necessity, obliga¬ 
tion or duty; it is then rendered by to have to, must , ought to, 
should, according to the idea to be conveyed. 


Debo estar en mi despacho a las 
seis. 

Habiendo llegado desmasiado tar- 
de para tomar el tren de las 
cuatro, debimos demorar nuestra 
partida hasta las doce de esa 
noche. 

Ustedes deberan pagar sus gastos 
de viaje. 

En tales circunstancias, debimos 
(better, tuvimos que) vender 
nuestras minas por las dos ter- 
ceras partes de su valor. 

Uno no debe revelar sus secretos 
a personas extranas. 

El estudiante debe aprender de 
memoria la siguient© regia ge¬ 
neral. 

La funcion debe principiar a las 
ocho y media. 


I must be in my office at six. 

Having arrived too late to take 
the four o’clock train, we had 
to delay our departure until 
twelve o’clock that night. 

You will have to pay your travel¬ 
ing expenses. 

Under such circumstances, we had 
to sell our mines for two-thirds 
of their value. 

One ought not to reveal one’s 
secrets to strange persons. 

The student should learn the fol¬ 
lowing general rule by heart. 

The performance must begin at 
half past eight. 





34 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§24 


3. In the indicative postpreterit or the subjunctive pret¬ 
erit, as the equivalent of ought to. It is then followed by 
an infinitive, and carries with it an implied negation; for 
it indicates that the action denoted by the infinitive following 
it is not, or has not been, performed. 


Usted deberia (or, debiera) tratar I You ought to treat your employes 
mejor & sus empleados. | better. 

(The implication is that you do not treat your employes well 
enough.) 


El orador deberia (or, debiera) 
emplear un lenguaje m&s deco- 
roso y respetuoso. 


The orator ought to use more 
decorous and respectful lan¬ 
guage. 


(The implication is that the orator’s language is not decorous nor 
respectful.) 


In expressions of this kind, the postpreterit may be 
replaced by the copreterit. 


Usted debia tratar mejor k sus empleados. 

El orador debia emplear un lenguaje m&s decoroso y respetuoso. 


4. Followed by de and an infinitive, to express conjecture 
or supposition. It may then be rendered by the conjectural 
must, or by introducing the verb to suppose. 


El servicio del cable debe de estar 
interrumpido, pues aun no 
hemos recibido contestacion al 
cablegrama que pusimos ayer.* 
Si6ntese, sefiorita Rosa; usted 
debe de sentirse cansada. 

La funcidn debe <pe principiar a 
las ocho. 


The cable service must be inter¬ 
rupted, for we have not yet 
received an answer to the cable¬ 
gram we sent yesterday. 

Sit down, Miss Rose; you must 
feel tired. 

I suppose ( or , The probabilities 
are that) the performance will 
begin at eight. 


r 

Although the present of deber de denotes supposition, the 
future is often, though perhaps not very properly, used for 


* Poner literally means to put , but in the expressions poner un cable¬ 
grama , poner un telegrama , it is rendered by to send. 






§24 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


35 


the same purpose. (See Part 8, Secondary Meanings of 
the Tenses.) The first two of the following forms are 
preferable to the third: 

Esa firma debe de ser muy rica. 

Esa firma sera muy rica. 

Esa firma debera de ser muy 

rica. 

Very often, deber is employed with this conjectural value 
without the preposition de. 

El servicio del cable debe estar interrumpido. 

Sientese, senorita Rosa; usted debe estar cansada. 

This practice, although quite general, is not sanctioned by 
grammarians, and ought not to be followed, as it deprives 
the language of a convenient means of distinguishing 
between necessity and supposition. Thus, the last example 
under 2 means, It is necessary that the performance should 
begin at half past eight , and the last example under 4, It is 
likely , or I suppose, that the performance will begin at eight. 

65. Compound Tenses.— The compound tenses of 
deber have the same general signification as the simple, but 
they have the syntactic peculiarity that, in cases 3 and 4 
considered in the last article, the compound tense may be 
replaced by the simple, the simple infinitive following that 
compound tense being at the same time replaced by the 
compound infinitive. It will be observed that the latter 
form of construction corresponds literally with the English. 

We have had to reduce the prices 
of our articles. 


He told me that I ought to have 
demanded payment immedi¬ 
ately. 


Hemos debido ( better , Hemos te- 
ttido que) reducir los precios de 
nuestros articulos. 

Me dijo que yo habria debido 
exigii* el pago inmediata- 
mente. 

Me dijo que yo deberia haber 
exigido el pago inmediata- 
mente. 


That firm must be {or, I suppose 
that firm is) very rich. 





36 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


24 


Usted habria debido dar satis¬ 
faction. 

Usted deberia haber dado sa- 
tisfaccion. 

El tren ha debido de llegar ya. 

El tren debe de baber lle- 
gado ya. 

Usted ha debido de sufrir mu- 
chisimo. 

Usted debe de baber sufrido 
muchisimo. 


You ought to have offered an 
apology. 

The train must have arrived al¬ 
ready. 

You must have suffered a great 
deal. 


The compound present of deber, when this verb denotes 
obligation, is generally preferred to the compound post¬ 
preterit in sentences with implied negation. The simple 
preterit may be used for the same purpose; but, while the 
compound present should be followed by the simple infini¬ 
tive of the verb it negatives, the simple preterit should be 
followed by the compound infinitive. 


Usted ha debido regresar inme-' 
diatamente. 

Usted debio haber regresa- 
do inmediatamente. 


You ought to have returned im 
mediately. 


DECIR 

66. Decir, to say. — This is the literal translation, but 
the verb is employed in sentences in which to ask or to read 
(intransitive) would be used in English. 


Dijo que mandaria un coche. 

Yo soy de Madrid. ^Porque dice? 

El articulo cuarto de la Constitu¬ 
tion dice asi: . . . 


He said he would send a carriage. 
I am from Madrid. Why do you 
ask? 

Article 4 of the Constitution reads 
thus: . . . 


67. ^Que dice? what is it? 

[Teresa! — &Que dice, mama? | Teresa! —What is it, mama? 

68. Es decir, that is, that is to say. 

69. Decir, to tell. 









§24 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


37 


Me acaban de decir que usted They have just told me that you 
piensa casarse. intend to be married. 

Don Eduardo me dijo que usted Mr. Edward told me that you 
deseaba vender su casa. j wished to sell your house. 


70. Mandar decir, to send word (Art. 19). 

71. Querer decir, to mean. 


iQue quiere usted decir con eso? 
No se que quiere decir esta pala- 
bra. 

iQue query an* decir estos prepa- 
rativos ? 


| What do you mean by that? 

I do not know what this word 
means. 

I wonder what these preparations 
mean. 


DEJAR 

72. Non-Pronominal Form. — The most common 
meaning's of this form are: 

1. To leave; also, to allow , to let. 

2. Followed by a participle or a participial phrase 
denoting an emotion, it is rendered by to be filled with , the 
participle being translated by a substantive denoting the 
same emotion. 

Las piramides nos dejaron ad- The pyramids filled us with admi- 
mirados. ration. 

La noticia me dejo lleno de sor- The news struck me with sur- 
presa. prise. 

3. Followed by ver, to see , it forms a combination mean¬ 
ing to show , to make it plain. 

Desde el principio de la guerra, ! From the beginning of the war, 
los Boers dejaron ver que eran the Boers showed that they were 

soldados de primer orden. first-class soldiers. 

73. Dejar de. — This phrase, followed by an infinitive, 
may have the following meanings: 

^Notice the conjectural meaning of the future. (See Part 8, 
Secondary Meanings of the Tenses.) 






38 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


24 


1. To cease; also, to stop. The phrase formed by de and 
the infinitive is rendered by the English present participle, 
or by the English infinitive. 


Nunca deja de hablar de sus 
grandes aventuras amorosas. 
Deje de escribir, y vamos a dar 
uti paseo. 


He never ceases to talk about his 
great love adventures. 

Stop writing, and let us go to 
take a walk. 


2. In negative sentences, preceded by no , it may mean 
not to fail to. 


No deje de escribirnos con fre- 
cuencia. 

No dejen de averiguar el nom- 
bre del artista que pinto este 
paisaje. 


Do not fail to write to us often. 

Do not fail to find out the name 
of the artist who painted this 
landscape. 


3. In sentences like the following, no dejar de literally 
means rather , but may often be translated by giving the 
English sentence a form somewhat different from the 
Spanish, using such expressions as not to be without , not to be 


wanting in. and the like: 

Eso no deja de ser util. 

El Ferrocarril de Pensilvania, 
aunque uno de los mejores de 
los Estados Unidos, no deja de 
tener defectos serios. 

El viaje de la Habana a Santiago 
no deja de ser interesante. 

La guerra de las Filipinas no ha 
dejado de dar lecciones utiles a 
los americanos. 


That is rather useful {or, That is 
not lacking in usefulness). 

The Pennsylvania Railroad, al¬ 
though one of the best in the 
United States, is not wanting in 
serious defects. 

The trip from Havana to San¬ 
tiago is not wanting in interest. 

The war in the Philippines has 
not been lacking in useful les¬ 
sons to the Americans. 


74. Pronominal Form. —Only the two following appli¬ 
cations of this form will be here mentioned: 

1. Dejarse ver — impersonal phrase meaning to be evident, 
to be easily seen. 





24 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


39 


Se deja ver que el agente ese no It is easy to see that that agent 
estuvo en Lima. was not in (did not go to) Lima. 

Por el modo como esa senorita From the way in which that young 
habla de las americanas, s<? deja lady speaks of American women, 
ver 4 ue las conoce muy poco. it is easy to see that she knows 

them very little. 

2. Dejarse de, to dispense with , to leave (or set) aside; also, 
to stop (usually said of a habitual action). 

Set aside all formalities, and treat 
me like a member of the family. 

It is necessary for us to set aside 
all scruples. 

Stop gambling and drinking, if 
you do not wish to lose your 
reputation and your fortune. 


JJejese de cumplimientos. y tra- 
teme como a un miembro de la 
familia. 

Es preciso que nos dejemos de 
escrupulos. 

Dejate de jugar y beber, si no 
quieres perder tu reputacion y 
tu fortuna. 


Dejar a 7i?i lado is also used in the sense of to set aside. 


Deje los cumplimientos a un lado , y trateme, etc. 
Es preciso que dejemos los escrupulos a un lado. 


ECHAR 

75. Echar, to put in. 


Hagame el favor de echar me esta 
tarjeta postal en el buzon. 

Eche este polvo en un vaso de 
agua, y tomese una cucharada 
cada dos horas. 


Please put this postal card in the 
letter box for me. 

Put this powder in a glass of 
water, and take a spoonful every 
two hours. 


76. Echar, to p7it out, to order out; to discharge. 


Los americanos echaron a los 
espanoles de Cuba. 

La senorita Mercedes tuvo que 
echar a ese joven de su casa. 
iEl renuncio su empleo, 6 lo 
echaron ? 


The Americans put the Spaniards 
out of Cuba. 

Miss Mercedes had to order that 
young man out of her house. 

Did he resign his position, or was 
he sent away? 


77. Echar, to put on , to apply. 




40 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


24 


Echele aldaba a la puerta. 

dLes echb usted la Have £ los 
baules? 

Echele su firma a este cheque. 


Latch the door ( literally, Put the 
latch on the door). 

Did you lock the trunks? ( literally, 
Did you apply the key to the 
trunks?) 

Put your signature to this check. 


78. Echar, to develop, to grow (transitive), to put forth. 


El tronco empieza a echar retonos. 

Cuando mi hijo empezaba d echar 
barba, yo empezaba d echar 
canas. 

Las doctrinas revolucionarias ha- 
bian echado hondas ralces en 
Francia, y era imposible erradi- 
carlas. 


The trunk begins to sprout {or, to 
put forth shoots). 

When my son was beginning to 
have a beard, I was beginning 
to get gray ( literally , When my 
son began to develop a beard, I 
began to develop gray hair). 

Revolutionary doctrines had taken 
deep root in France, and it was 
impossible to eradicate them. 


79. Echar a. —This expression, followed by the infini¬ 
tive of a verb denoting an action and not having an accusa¬ 
tive, means to begin, generally with the implication of 
unusual effort or intensity in the performance of the action; 
followed by an infinitive and its accusative, it means to start , 
in the sense of to send, to make, to set (followed by the 
present participle). In the former case, the verb may be 
employed either pronominally or non-pronominally. 


El ladron, que vio venir al sereno, 
arrojo el baul al suelo, y echo 
{or, se echo) a correr. 

Cuando el juez ley<5 la sentencia 
de muerte, el condenado echo 
{or, se echo) a llorar. 

Eche a rodar la bo la. 

Echamos a andar la mdquina. 


The burglar, who saw the night 
watchman coming, threw the 
trunk on the ground, and took 
to his heels {more literally, 
started to run). 

When the judge read the death 
sentence, the condemned man 
melted into tears {literally, 
started to weep). 

Start the ball rolling. 

We set the machine going. 


80. Echar a perder, to spoil (transitive); echarse a 
perder, to spoil (intransitive), to become ruined. 





§24 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


41 


Un mal desenlace puede echar a 
perder una riovela que, sin esta 
falta, seria considerada como 
una grande obra. 

Su impericia echo a perder. el ne- 
gocio. 

Nuestra carbonera se ha echado a 
perder. 

La bodega del vapor era muy 
humeda, y los cigarrillos se 
echaron a perder. 

81. Eeliax* de meuos, e 

Echo de rnenos el tomo segundo 
de la Historia de Restrepo. 

Mucho la hernos echado de rnenos , 
senorita Josefina. 

82. Eeliai* de ver, to m 

to be noticeable, to be easily seen 

Cuando llegue al teatro, eche de 
ver que habia olvidado mi 
boleto. 

iNo ha echado usted de ver ulti- 
mamente que las ealles se riegan 
todos los dias? 

Se echa de ver que esa senorita es 
muy leida. 


A poor denouement may spoil a 
novel which, without this fault, 
would be considered as a great 
work. 

His inexperience spoiled the busi¬ 
ness. 

Our coal mine has become ruined. 

The hold of the steamer was very 
damp, and the cigarettes were 
ruined. 

lar rnenos, to ?niss. 

I miss the second volume of 
Restrepo’s History. 

We have missed you very much, 
Miss Josephine. 

ce, to find; eeliarse de vex*, 


When I arrived at the theater, I 
found that I had forgotten my 
ticket. 

Have you not noticed lately that 
the streets are sprinkled every 
day? 

It is easy to see that that young 
lady is very well read. 


FALTAR 

83. Faltarle a uiio aljyo,* to lack , want , or be in need 
of, something , the accusative of the English verb being the 
subject of the Spanish, and the subject of the English 
being represented in Spanish by a dative phrase or case. 


Deseo comprar esa casa, pero me 
falta dinero. 

A usted le falta experiencia. 


I wish to buy that house, but I 
lack the money (or, I have not 
enough money). 

You need experience. 


*For this use of uno, see Art. 5. 








42 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§ 24 


Alin nos faltan algunos datos, 
sin los cuales no podemos en- 
viar el informe. 

Estudian mucho, pero les faltan 
buenos libros y un buen maestro. 


We still want some data, without 
which we cannot send the 
report. 

They study a great deal, but 
they lack good books and a 
good teacher. 


84. Faltar . . . para (applied to time), to want ... of, 
to be .. . to: the phrase indicating the time interval is the 
subject of the Spanish verb, while that of the English verb 
is the indefinite it. 


Fait a un cuarto para las once. 

Faltan dies minutos para la 
una. 

85. Faltar, to be missing; 

Falta uno de los libros que deje 
aqui ayer. 

^Donde estan las dos sillas que 
faltan en este cuarto? 

Aqui nada falta. 


It is a quarter to eleven. 
It is ten minutes to one. 


also, to be wanting. 

One of the books I left here yes¬ 
terday is missing. 

Where are the two chairs that are 
missing in this room? 

Nothing is needed (that is, 
wanting) here. 

Nothing is missing here. 


86. Faltar por (followed by an infinitive), to remain to 
be (followed by a participle). 


^Cuantas cartas faltan por es- 
cribirf 

Aun falta mas de la mitad del 
ferrocarril por construir. 


How many letters remain to be 
written? 

More than one-half of the rail¬ 
road is yet to be built. 


The verb quedar, to remain, is used in the same sense. 

^Cuantas cartas quedan por escribir? 

Aun queda mas de la mitad del ferrocarril por construir. 


HABER 

87. Haber de. —This phrase, followed by an infinitive, 
indicates: 

1. Necessity or duty, either literally or figuratively. 







24 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


43 


Un buen agente ha de conocer el 
idioma y las costumbres de los 
paises en que viaja. 

El esclavo ha de someterse a la 
voluntad de su senor. 

En aquellos tiernpos, las eolonias 
habian de comprar a la metropoli 
cuanto necesitaban. 

Ha de saber Ud. que sus amigos 
lo han abandonado. 

Hagame el favor de decirme que 
he de hacer. 


A good agent must know the lan¬ 
guage and the customs of the 
countries in which he travels. 

The slave must submit to his 
master’s will. 

In those days, the colonies had to 
buy from the mother country 
all they needed. 

You must know that your friends 
have forsaken you. 

Please tell me what I am to do. 


2. Futurity, with a vague implication of necessity. 


El buque ha de llegar pronto. 

La funcion habia de principiar a 
las ocho. 

Las mercancias que pedimos a 
Nueva-York han de llegarnos 
hoy 6 manana. 


The ship must arrive soon. 

The performance was to begin at 
eight. 

The goods we ordered from New 
York must reach us today or 
tomorrow. 


3. Conjecture or supposition. Haber is then equivalent 
to deber (Art. 64, 4). 


Los perros han de haber levan- 
tado el venado, pues estan la- 
drando mucho. 

El medico lmbo de llegar des¬ 
pues de muerto el herido; pues 
este estaba agonizando cuando 
nosotros lo dejamos. 


The dogs must have started the 
deer, for they are barking a 
great deal. 

The physician must have arrived 
after the wounded man had 
died, for the latter was breath¬ 
ing his last when we left him. 


4. In interrogative sentences like the following, bewil¬ 
derment, hopelessness, impotency; it is then better rendered 
by can: 


l Que hetnos de hacer ? 


What can we do? 
What are we to do? 


88. The indicative preterit of haber followed by de and 
an infinitive is especially used: 

1. To indicate necessity. 





44 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


24 


El senador Jones se expresso de 
una manera tan ofensiva y tan 
vulgar, que el presidente liubo 
de ordenarle que callase. 

2. In place of the preterit 


Senator Jones expressed himself 
in so offensive and vulgar a 
manner, that the speaker had 
to order him to be silent. 

of the verb following de. 


El orador, tras una pausa de 
dos 6 tr;es minutos, liubo de 
continuar (that is, continud ) 
asi: . . . 


The orator, after a pause of two 
or three minutes, continued 
thus: . . . 


89. Haber menester, to need , to be in need of. 


Memos menester\sL ayuda de usted. 
Le devuelvo su maquina de escri- 
bir, pues ya no la he menester. 


We need your help. 

I am returning your typewriter, 
for I no longer need it. 


The word menester is used only with haber and in imper¬ 
sonal sentences with ser: ser menester, to be necessary. 


Es menester que su apoderado j It is necessary that your attorney 
firme la escritura. | sign the deed. 

90. Haber de , used without a subject and followed by 
an adjective, means to be , or there to be , followed by a sub¬ 
stantive expressing in the abstract the same idea as is 
expressed by the Spanish adjective. 


<;Que bay de nuevo? 

Creo que bay mucho de cierto 
en lo que ese hombre dice. 


What is the news? 

I think there is a great deal of 
truth in what that man says. 


91. ^Que hay ? —a common familiar greeting equivalent 
to the English hallo! 


92. Tener que haberselas con, to have to deal with , 
usually with the implication of difficulty or opposition to be 
overcome. 


Espana tiene ahora que haberselas 
con una nacion rica y poderosa. 

Tuve que habermelas con un 
hombre ignorante, insolente 
y obstinado. 


Spain has now to deal with a rich 
and powerful nation. 

I had to deal with an ignorant, 
insolent, and obstinate man. 







§24 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


45 


93. Mai Haya, Bien Haya.— These are optative or 
interjectional phrases meaning, respectively, cursed be , blessed 
be. The former is familiarly employed in the sense of 
confound. 


/Mai haya quien profanare mi 
sepulcro! 

/Bien hayan los padres de tales 
hijos! 

/Mai haya ese cocinero estupido! 


Woe to him (more literally , Cursed 
be him) who shall desecrate my 
grave! 

Blessed be the parents of such 
children! 

Confound that stupid cook! 


94. Haber for Tener.— Formerly, haber was a syn¬ 
onym of tener. This use of the verb is now limited to a few 
phrases, as illustrated by the following examples: 


Los hijos habidos del primer 
matrimonio no figuran en el 
testamento. 

Esta es la firma del rey Alfonso, 
a quien Dios haya. 


The children had by the first 
marriage do not figure in the 
will. 

This is the signature of King 
Alphonso — may he rest in peace 
0 literally , may God have him). 


Note. — For haber as a subjectless verb, see Part 8. 


HACER 

95. Use of Haeerlo to Represent a Previous State¬ 
ment.— Hacer, in combination with the neuter lo, serves to 
represent another verb or a proposition previously men¬ 
tioned in the sentence, provided the verb represented, or 
that in the represented proposition, denotes an action. The 
neuter lo accompanying hacer is sometimes translated by so, 
sometimes by it, and sometimes not at all. Under no 
other circumstances can either hacer or any other verb be 
employed to render the auxiliary to do. Such expressions 
as I do, He does not, in which a verb previously mentioned 
is understood after do or do not, must be translated by repeat¬ 
ing the verb, or, in answering a question, simply by si, yes; 
or no, no. 






46 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§24 


Yo le he aconsejado, como usted 
lo lxa liecho, que asegure su 
casa y sus muebles. Siempre j 
contesta qne lo liara al dia | 
siguiente, y luego dice que ol- [ 
vido liacer lo. 

Mande esos periodicos a mi ofi- 
cina. — Si, senor, lo liare ahora 
mismo. 

Si usted pudiera entregarle esta 
carta a su tio, le agradeceria 
mucho que tuviese la bondad de 
hacer/o. 


I have advised him, as you have 
done, to insure his house and 
furniture. He always answers 
that he will do so the following 
day, and then he says he forgot 
to do it. 

Send those newspapers to my 
office. —Yes, sir, I will do so at 
once. 

If you could deliver this letter to 
your uncle, you would greatly 
oblige me by doing so. 


96. Otliei* Uses of Hacei*. — Besides its primary mean¬ 
ing' of to make or to do , this verb has many others, and serves 
to form a great many idiomatic phrases, of which a few are 
here given. For others, the student should consult a dic¬ 
tionary. The uses of hacer as a subjectless verb were 
explained in Part 8. 

1. Hacerle caso a una persona, to mind , or to notice , a 
person; liacer caso de, to pay attention to, to care for. 


Hagaine caso, amigo Torres; yo 
soy mas viejo y tengo mas ex- 
periencia que usted. 

La esposa del alcalde entro a-la 
sala de baile con un aire in¬ 
sultan te de superioridad; y 
jcual fue su sorpresa cuando vio 
que nadie le hacia caso! 

No haga caso de lo que esa mujer 
dice. 

2. Hacer da no (literally, 

health; not to agree with one; 

ficial, to do good. 

El cafe hace mucho dano. 

El pastel que me comi anoche me 
liizo dano. 

Ese tonico me ha hecho mucho 
provecho. 


Mind me, friend Torres; I am 
older and have more experience 
than you. 

The mayor’s wife entered the ball 
room with an insulting air of 
superiority; and, what was her 
surprise when she saw that no¬ 
body noticed her! 

Do not pay any attention to what 
that woman says. 

to do harm), to be injurious to 
liacer proveclio, to be be?ie- 

Cofifee is very unhealthful. 

The pie I ate last night made me 
ill. 

That tonic has done me much 
good. 






§24 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


47 


Es de esperarse que esta leccion ! It is to be hoped that this lesson 
le haga provecho a Venezuela, | will do Venezuela some good. 
Buen provecho le haga. | Much good may it do you. 

3. Hacer (or, dar) un descuento, to give a discount; 
liacer un pedido, to give an order (for goods, in business). 

4. liacer falta, to be lacking, to be needed; liacerle falta 


algo a uno, to miss something, 

En Colombia hacen falta buenos i 
ferrocarriles. 

El interprete nos ha hecho mucha 
falta. 

A usted le hacen falta pacien- 
cia y experiencia. 

5. Hacer por, to try to. 
Haga por ver a su primo manana. | 

6. Hacer lo posible, to do, 

Hare lo posible por venir esta 
noche. 

No pudimos vender el cafe que 
usted envio con nosotros, aun- 
que hicitnos lo posible. 


to need something. 

Colombia needs good railroads. 

We have missed the interpreter 
very much. 

You need patience and experience. 


Try to see your cousin tomorrow, 

or try, one's best. 

I will do my best to come tonight. 

We could not sell the coffee you 
sent by us, although we tried 
our best. 


7. Hacer una pregunta, to ask a question. 

8. Hacer (pie, to cause, to have, to give rise lo, to be the 
cause of. This phrase is always followed by a proposition 
with a subjunctive verb. 


Haga que compongan estas md- 
quinas inmediatamente. 

Nuestras contiendas intestinas han 
hecho que los extranjeros nos 
miren como paises incivilizados. 


Have these machines repaired 
immediately. 

Our internecine strifes have caused 
foreigners to regard us as unciv¬ 
ilized countries. 


9. Hacerse, to become , to make oneself. 






48 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


24 


Ese hombre se ha hecho odioso. 

El amor de los yankees al dinero 
se ha hecho proverbial. 
iUsted que se ha hecho ultima- 
mente? 


That man has made himself hate¬ 
ful. 

The Yankees’ love of money has 
become proverbial. 

What has become of you lately? 


10. Hacersele a uno (followed by an adjective), to 
appear or seem to one , to impress or strike one. 

Lo que el dijo se me hizo dificil What he said struck me as being 
de creer. difficult to believe. 


IR 


97. Ir a.—This phrase is used: 
1. In the sense of to be going to. 


Manana vamos a la Habana. 

<;A donde va usted? 
iQue va usted a hacer esta tarde? 
— Voy a visitar al ministro ar¬ 
gentine. 

Van a poner una estatua de Paez 
en el Parque Central. 

Juancho va a decide a tu madre 
lo que tu has hecho. 

2. In the sense of to be on 

Ibarnos a mandar por ustedes 
cuando los vimos venir. 

Van a dar las doce. 

Va a ser la una y media. 


We are going to Havana tomor¬ 
row. 

Where are you going (to) ? 

What are you going to do this after¬ 
noon?—I am going to call on 
the Argentine minister. 

They are going to put a statue of 
Paez in Central Park. 

Johnnie is going to tell your 
mother what you have done. 

the point of , to be about to. 

We were just going to send for 
you when we saw you coming. 

It is about to strike twelve. 

It is almost ( literally , It is about 
to be) half past one. 


For the meaning of ir d que , see Part 6, The Subjunctive 
after certain Conjunctive and Adverbial Words and Phrases. 

98. Ir para, to be on the way to. When a person is on 
his way to a place, he may say, either voy a—, or voy para — , 
both of which expressions mean / am going to , in the sense 
of I am on my way to. Although the form with para does 







§24 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


49 


not seem to be approved by grammarians, it is much 
commoner than the form with a. In questions, the two 
prepositions are equally common. 

donde va usted? 1 j 

<?Para donde va usted? j j Where are y° u S oin S ? 

99. Irle a uno, to fare , to get along. 

<Como le va en sus negocios? How are you getting along in 

your business? 

jAdios! que le vaya muy bien. Good by! may you fare well (I 

wish you good luck). 

The expression g,Como le va? is frequently used as a 
familiar greeting meaning How are you? 


100. Difference Between Ir and Tenir.— The first 

of these two verbs means to move to a place where the speaker 
is not; the second, to move to a place where the speaker is. 
It follows from this fundamental difference that when to come 
is employed to denote motion to a place where the speaker 
is not, it should be rendered by ir, not by venir. As stated 
in Art. 33, the progressive idiomatic forms to be going, to be 
coming should not be translated literally. 


iPachita!—Ya voy. 

Recibi un telegrama de mi padre 
diciendome que vaya a verlo in- 
mediatamente. 

Venga aca, don Patricio. 

^De donde viene usted? 


Fanny! —I am coming at once. 

I received a telegram from my 
father asking me to come to see 
him immediately. 

Come here, Mr. Patrick. 

Where do you come from? 


LLEGAE 

101. Blegrar, to arrive; with a dative case, to reach. 


IA que hora llegb usted a Nueva- 
York? 

Las mercancias que pedimos el 
mes pasado no nos han lle- 
gatlo todavia. 

La noticia nos llego hace como 
ocho dias. 


At what time did }X>u arrive at 
New York? 

The wares we ordered last month 
have not yet reached us. 

The news reached us about eight 
days ago. 






50 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§24 


102. Llegar a, followed by an infinitive or infinitive 
phrase, indicates the realization or attainment of the action 
or condition denoted by that infinitive or phrase. Thus, 
llegar d comprender una cosa is to attain , reach , or arrive at the 
understa7iding oh a thing; and llegar d ser feliz is to reach a 
happy condition , that is, to become happy. The literal meaning 
of llegar d being understood, it is easy to find, in every 
particular case, an appropriate or idiomatic translation. 


La huelga de los carboneros lia 
llegado a ser el unico tema 
de conversacion. 

A1 fin llegue a creey que nues- 
tro padre Adan no era mas que 
un mito. 

Si sus pronosticos llegan a rea- 
lizarse , el mundo llegara a 
ser un verdadero paraiso. 


The strike of the coal miners has 
become the only topic of con¬ 
versation. 

At last I came to believe that our 
father Adam was but a myth. 

If your prognostications should 
be fulfilled, the world will be¬ 
come a true paradise. 


LLEYAR 

103. Primary Meanings.—The primary meaning’s of 
llevar are: 

1. To carry. 

Lleve esta silla al cuarto siguiente. | Carry this chair to the next room. 

2. To take. 


Lleve le este recado al senor Pe¬ 
ralta. 

Anoche llevl a mis muchachitas a 
la opera. 

El guia nos llevo a todos los lu- 
gares interesantes. 


Take this message*to Mr. Peralta. 

I took my little girls to the opera 
last night. 

The guide took us to all the inter¬ 
esting places. 


104. Llevar Followed by a Participle.— In this con¬ 
struction, llevar has the same value as liaber, to have, but 
implies completion, or the reaching of a certain stage, quan¬ 
tity, or number (indicated by an accusative) in a continued 
process. The participle should agree in gender and number 
with the accusative of the compound form thus obtained. 





§24 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


51 


Llevo escritSLS cuarenta cartas. 

Llevamos comprada s veinte 
mil acciones. 

iCuantos billetes lleva usted ven- 
didos hasta ahora? 


1 have already written forty let¬ 
ters. 

We have already (or, so far) 
bought twenty thousand shares. 

How many tickets have you sold 
so far? 


In the last example, the phrase hasta ahora might be 
omitted, it being implied in the verb llevar. 


105. Llevar With an Accusative Denoting a Period 
of Time.—In this construction, llevar literally means to 
have completed, but may be rendered by to have bee?i. 


Llevo diez y ocho anos en los 
Estados Unidos. 

gCuantos anos lleva usted en 
este pais? 


I have been eighteen years in the 
United States. 

How many years have you been 
in this country? 


If that whose duration is referred to is represented by an 
infinitive, llevar should be followed by de, and the infinitive 
rendered by the English present participle. 

Llevo diez anos de negoeiar en I have been dealing in cloths 
telas. (textile fabrics) ten years. 


106. Llevar correspondence, to conduct correspotid- 
ence; llevar libros, to keep books. 


iQuien lleva los libros en esta 
fabrica? 

Yo llevo la correspondence en la 
imprenta de Gomez y Nunez. 

107. Llevar, to charge. 

iCuanto llevan en ese hotel? 

El arriero me llevo diez pesos por 
los dos dias. 

108. Llevarse, to take 
with one. 

Carmen, llevese estos platos. 

El enemigo se llez’b cuanto encon- 
trd en la ciudad. 


Who keeps the books in this fac¬ 
tory? 

I conduct the correspondence in 
Gomez and Nunez’s printery. 


How much do they charge at that 
hotel? 

The muleteer charged me ten dol¬ 
lars for the two days. 

away, to carry away , to take 

| Carmen, take away these dishes. 

The enemy carried away every¬ 
thing they found in the city. 





52 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


24 


Llevese estos libros; yo ya no los 
necesito. 

Lo que nos llevamos no alcanzaba 
ni a la mitad de lo que dejamos. 


Take these books with you; I no 
longer need them. 

What we carried away (or, took 
with us) did not amount even to 
one-half of what we left. 


MIRAR 

109. The primary meaning of this verb is to look at, but 
it is also very frequently used, especially in passive and 
quasi-reflexive constructions, and modified by an adverb, in 
the sense of to regard, to consider, to feel toward. The trans¬ 
lation must usually be effected rather freely. The adverb is 
often rendered by an adjective modifying the accusative of 
the corresponding English verb. 


Eso no se mira bien en Espana. 

Eso se mira muy mat en este 
pais. 

Aqui no se mira bien que una 
senorita vaya al teatro con un 
joven. 

El que hace tales cosas no es 
bien mirado. 

Los americanos son por lo ge¬ 
neral mat mirados en Cuba. 


In Spain that is not considered 
proper. 

That is considered very improper 
in this country. 

Here it is not considered proper 
for a young lady to go to the 
theater with a young man. 

He who does such things is not 
well thought of. 

Americans are generally little 
liked (or, are generally looked 
upon with disfavor) in Cuba. 


PAGAR 

110. This verb means to pay, but its construction is 
somewhat different from that of its English equivalent. 
The substantive denoting the person paid is always the 
dative of pagar. 

1. If the amount or thing paid is specified or referred 
to, the construction is similar to the English. 


Pagne dies pesos al sastre por 
estos pantalones. 

gCuanto pago usted por ese 
reloj ? 

El azucar paga alios derechos. 


I paid the tailor ten dollars for 
these trousers. 

How much did you pay for that 
watch? 

Sugar pays high duties. 







24 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


53 


2. If the amount is not referred to, the name of the thing 


paid for may be made either 
before, the object of por. 

Todavia no lie pagado estos 
pantalones al sastre. 

Todavia no lie pagado al sas¬ 
tre por estos pantalones. 


the accusative of pagar , or, as 


I have not yet paid the tailor for 
these trousers. 


PASAR 

111. Pasar, to pass, to spend; to be over, to be past. 


iComo pasb el enfermo la noche? 

Anoche pasamos un rato muy 
agradable con el senor Cuartas. 

No me ha pasado la fiebre to¬ 
davia. — Espero que pronto le 
pase. 

Aun no ha pasado la epoca del 
fanatismo religioso. 

112. Pasar, to happen, to 

iQue le ha pasado a usted, que ya 
no viene a vernos? 

<iQue pasa aqui? 

Usted no parece bien; ique le 
pasa ? 


How did the patient pass the 
night? 

We spent a very pleasant time 
with Mr. Cuartas last night. 

My fever is not over yet. —I hope 
it will soon be. 

The age of religious fanaticism is 
not over yet. 

be going on. 

What has happened to you, that 
you no longer come to see us? 

What is going on here? 

You do not look well; what is the 
matter with you? 


113. Pasar algo por alto; pasarsele a uno algo 
por alto, to overlook something. 


Teniamos que considerar tantas 
cosas, que muchas se nos pasa- 
ron por alto (or, que pasamos 
muchas por alto ). 

A usted todo se le pasa por alto. 

Eso se nos paso por alto. 


We had to consider so many 
things, that we overlooked 
many of them. 

You overlook everything. 

We overlooked that. 


114. Pasar la euenta, to send the bill. 








54 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


24 


Castro y Andrade nos acaban de 
pasar la cuenta. 

Puede usted pasarle la cuenta a 
mi esposo por estas joyas. 

Castro and Andrade have just 
sent us the bill. 

You may send my husband the 
bill for these jewels. 


115. PasaiTo, to fare; also, to be , when used as a mere 


form of greeting. 


Como no conociamos el pais, to 
pa samos muy mal. 

As we were not acquainted with 
the country, we fared very badly 
[or, we had a hard time). 

iComo to pasa usted? 

Que to pase usted bien. [An ex¬ 
pression used when taking leave 
of a person .] 

How are you? 

May you fare well. 


116. Pasarse sin, to do without , to go or get along 


without. 


Me es imposible pasarme sin un 
secretario. 

It is impossible for me to get 
along without a secretary. 


PENSAR 

117. Pensar, to think , to cogitate. 

“ Pienso , luego existo.” “I think, therefore I exist.” 


Es mejor pensar mucho y hablar 
poco, que hablar mucho y pen¬ 
sar poco. 

It is better to think much and 
speak little, than to speak much 
and think little. 


118. Pensar, to intend. 


Pensabanios redactar un periodico 
semanal. 

El general piensa pedir la entrega 
de la plaza. 

We intended to edit a weekly 
newspaper. 

The general intends to demand 
the surrender of the town. 


119. Pensar de, to think of , to have an opinion about. 
In this sense, creer is preferable to pensar. 


iQue piensa (or, cree ) usted de 
este proyecto? 

What do you think of this pro¬ 
ject? 


120. Pensar en, to think of , in the sense of to think 
abozit or on. 









24 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


55 


&En que esta usted pensando? 

En aquel momento pense en la 
Virgen, y desist! de mi resolu- 
cion pecaminosa. 


What are you thinking about? 

At that moment I thought on the 
Virgin, and gave up my sinful 
resolution. 


121. Pensai* and Creer. —When to think denotes sup¬ 
position or conjecture, it should generally be rendered by 
creer, not by pensar (Art. 60, 2). The latter verb is only 
occasionally used in this sense. Creer is also preferable to 
express an opinion. 


Creo que va a llover. 

No crei que usted me negara ese 
favor. 

^No cree usted que seria mejor 
mandar a nuestro hijo a Paris? 


I think it is going to rain. 

I did not think you would refuse 
me that favor. 

Do you not think it would be 
better to send our son to Paris? 


PESAR 

122. This verb always takes a dative case. When 
followed by an accusative, it may take the preposition de. 
It literally means to grieve, with the implication of repent¬ 
ance, the grief being caused by an action of the subject 
himself. In familiar language, however, it is used in the 
literal sense of to make sorry , but is rendered by changing 
the construction of the English sentence and using the verb 
to regret , or the expression to be sorry for. In elevated style, 
it may be rendered by to repent. 


“Pesaw^f, Dios mio, de haberos 
ofendido.” 

Me pesa haber firmado esa pro¬ 
testa. 

Mucho me pesa lo que he hecho, 
pero ya no hay remedio. 


“I repent me, O God, having 
offended thee.” 

I am sorry I signed that protest. 

I am very sorry for what I have 
done, but there is no help for it 
now. 


PODER 

123. Poder, to be able, can, may, serves to express 
capacity, like the English can, as well as uncertainty, permis¬ 
sibility, or concession, like the English ?nay (or ca?i, in 







56 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


24 


questions). As both can and may are defective, the forms 
they lack must be supplied by forms of to be able , to be pos¬ 
sible, to be allowed , etc., according to circumstances. Poder 
is usually followed by an infinitive. In negative sentences, 
no is placed before poder , if capability or absolute possibility 
is to be expressed; otherwise, before the infinitive. 


El enfermo ya puede levantarse. 

El puente podia sostener una car- 
ga de quinientas mil toneladas. 

Querer no es lo mismo que poder. 

Crei que esto se podia hacer facil- 
mente. 

Puede usted decirle que vuelva 
manana. 

Hare cuanto pueda por verla. 

Me dijo que, si iba k su oficina a 
las dos, podria tal vez hallarle 
alii. 

No olvide su paraguas, que esta 
noche puede Hover. 

Don Pedro no puede satir, pues 
esta muy enfermo. 

Don Antonio puede no satir , 
pues es probable que su her- 
mano venga k pasar la noche 
con el. 

El vapor no puede llegar antes 
de las doce. 

< 

El vapor puede no llegar antes 
. de las doce. 

El doctor Sanchez puede no saber 
mucho, pero no puede ser tan 
ignorante como usted cree. 

gPuede creerse semejante cosa? 

Siento no haber podido ir. 

Si los buques espanoles hubieran 
sido mejor manejados, habrian 
podido resistir mas tiempo v 
causar mas dano (or, podrian 
liabei* resisticlo mas tiempo 
y causado mas dano). (Com¬ 
pare Art. 65.) 


The patient can rise already. 

The bridge could support a load 
of five hundred thousand tons. 
To will is not the same as to be 
able. 

I thought this could be easily 
done. 

You may tell him to come again 
tomorrow. 

I shall do all I can to see her. 

He told me, if I went to his office 
at two, I might perhaps find 
him there. 

Do not forget your umbrella, for 
it may rain tonight. 

Mr. Peter cannot go out, for he 
is very ill. 

Mr. Anthony may not go out, 
for it is likely that his brother 
will come to spend the eve¬ 
ning with him. 

The steamer cannot arrive before 
twelve. 

The steamer may not arrive 
before twelve. 

Dr. Sanchez may not know much, 
but he cannot be so ignorant as 
you think. 

Can one believe such a thing? 

I regret not having been able to go. 
If the Spanish vessels had been 
better handled, they could have 
resisted longer and caused more 
damage. 








24 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


57 


124. No Poder Menos de.—This phrase, followed by 
an infinitive, is equivalent to cannot but , cannot help (followed 
by present participle). 


No pudimos menos de admirar su 
temeridad. 

No puedo menos de sospechar que 
ese hombre es un farsante. 

No podra menos de aceptar nues- 
tra propuesta. 


We could not but admire his 
rashness. 

I cannot help suspecting that that 
man is an impostor. 

He cannot fail to accept our prop¬ 
osition. 


QUERER 

125. Querer, to wish; also, will , and, in questions, 
when offering something, will have. It must be observed, 
however, that querer is the equivalent of will only when the 
latter verb denotes a wish, not when it is a mere sign of 


futurity. 

Quiero salir, pero no puedo. 

Mi hijo quiere que yo le compre 
una escopeta. 

El caballo no quiere seguir. 

,-Porque no quiere usted respon- 
derme? —Porque no quiero. 

iQuiere usted tomar un poco de 
vino? 

Quiere usted una tajada de 
jamon? 

gQuiere usted hacerme un favor? 


I wish to go out, but cannot. 

My son wants me to buy him a 
shotgun. 

The horse won’t go on. 

Why won’t you answer me? — 
Because I won’t. 

Will you take some wine? 

Will you have a slice of ham? 

Will you do me a favor? 


126. Querer, to love. This use of qiierer is restricted 
to familiar language and light literature. In serious style, 
to love is rendered by amar. 


<iOuien no quiere a su madre? 
Mucho te quiero, mi vida; pero las 
circunstancias me impiden acep¬ 
tar tu propuesta. 

“Ama k tu projimo como a ti 


Who does not love his mother? 

I love you very much, darling; but 
the circumstances prevent me 
from accepting your proposal. 
“Love thy neighbor as thyself.’’ 

of querer in opta- 


mismo.” 

Note. —For querer decir , see Art. 71; for the use 
tive sentences, Part 8, Secondary Meanings of the Tenses. 






58 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§24 


SABER 

127. Saber, to know, to have knowledge of; also, to knoiv 
how, to be able, can, in the sense of to know something that 
has to be learned. When to knoiv means to be acquainted 
with, it is rendered by conocer. In some cases, saber and 
conocer are interchangeable, it being immaterial, for instance, 
whether we say that a person knows a subject, or that 
he is acquainted with it. 


Sabiamos que ese matrimonio 
tendria un fin desgraciado. 

El discipulo no supo su leccion. 
l„Sabe usted sumar y restar? 

&Sabe usted ddnde estd mi her- 
mano? — No se. 

Ese hombre no sabe firmar. 

Nosotros no sabemos tocar piano. 

jConoce usted al senor Pena? 

No conozco las obras de Quevedo. 

Me alegro mucho conocer a usted. 

El senor Jones conoce muy bien 
el espanol. 

' El senor Jones sabe mucho 
espanol. 

$Sabe usted el camino? 

4 Conoce usted el camino? 

128. 

He sabido que usted piensa ca- 
sarse. 

Acabamos de saber que mataron 
k Marti. 


We knew that that marriage would 
have an unfortunate end. 

The pupil did not know his lesson. 
Do you know how to add and 
subtract? 

Do you know where my brother 
is? —I do not. 

That man does not know how to 
sign (his name). 

We cannot (do not know how to) 
play the piano. 

Are you acquainted with Mr. 
Pena? 

I am not acquainted with Que- 
vedo’s works. 

I am very glad to make your 
acquaintance. 

Mr. Jones is very well acquainted 
with Spanish. 

Mr. Jones knows a great deal of 
Spanish. 

Do you know the road? 

Are you acquainted with the 
road? 


I have heard that you intend to 
be married. 

We have just heard that Marti was 
killed. 


Saber, to hear, to know from hearsay, to be informed. 


129 


Saber de, to hear of, to hear from. 






§24 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


59 


Desde que Rodriguez salio de San 
Juan, no hernos sabido de el. 

iHa sabido usted de su familia? 
Ayer supe del doctor Zorilla. 


Since Rodriguez left San Juan, 
we have not heard of {or, from) 
him. 

Have you heard from your family? 

I heard from Doctor Zorrilla yes¬ 
terday. 


130. Que se yo, literally, What do I know , but used in 
the sense of I don't k?iow, with the implication, and it doesn't 
matter. This expression is only used in familiar style. 


Dice que habla espanol, ingles, 
aleman, y que se yo cuantos 
otros idiomas. 

El abogado entro con un atado de 
testamentos, escrituras, cuentas, 
recibos, y que se yo que mas. 


He says he speaks Spanish, Eng¬ 
lish, German, and I don’t know 
how many other languages. 

The lawyer came in with a bundle 
of wills, deeds, bills, receipts, 
and what not. 


SENTIR 

131. Sentir, to feel; sentirse, to feel, to be (referring 
to the state of a person’s health). 


Los filosofos sensualistas sostenian 
que pensar es sentir. 
iSintib usted mucho dolor cuando 
le sacaron esa muela? 
Semejantes hombres son incapa- 
ces de sentir vergiienza. 

.jComo se siente usted hoy? — Me 
siento muy bien, gracias. 


The sensualist philosophers held 
that to think is to feel. 

Did you feel much pain when 
they pulled that tooth? 

Such men are incapable of feel¬ 
ing shame. 

How do you feel today? —I feel 
very well, thank you. 


132. Sentir, sentirse eon (ealor, liambre, etc.), 
to be (warm, hungry, etc.). The literal meanings of these 
expressions are to feel with heat , to feel with hunger, etc. As 
explained elsewhere, tener is used in the same sense. 

I am very warm. 

It is very cold here {literally , One 
feels very cold here). 


Siento 

Me siento con > mucho ealor. 

Tengo J 

Aqui se siente mucho frio. 






60 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§24 


133. Sentir, to hear; and, more generally, to perceive 
by the senses, except that of sight. 


Acabo de sentir un ruido. 

^No me sintio listed entrar ano- 
che? 

Senti un olor muy desagradable. 


I have just heard a noise. 

Did you not hear me come in last 
night? 

I noticed a very disagreeable odor. 


134. Sentir, to regret, to be sorry. 


Siento que usted este tan enferma. 
i Puedesprestarme diez pesos? —Lo 
siento mucho, pero no tengo sino 
dos pesos en el bolsillo. 


I am sorry that you are so ill. 

Can you loan me ten dollars? —I 
am very sorry, but I have only 
two dollars in my pocket. 


SERVIR 

135. Ser vir, to serve; also, to wait , and to help to. 


No es posible servir bien a dos 
sehores. 

.iQuien sieve en esta mesa? 

Sirvanos la comida. 1 

Sirvanos de comer. / 

En este restaurante sirven muy 
mal. 

Sirvame un poco de sopa, si me 
hace el favor. 

Sirvase mantequilla. 


<;Quiere usted servirme de secre- 
tario ? 

De nada le sirvio su reputacion 
como hombre de negocios. 

&De que sirven estas lamenta- 
ciones? 


It is not possible to serve two 
masters well. 

Who waits on this table? 

Serve dinner to us. 

They serve very poorly in this 
restaurant. 

Help me to some soup, if you 
please. 

Help yourself to some butter. 

to be of use, to 


Will you serve me (or, work for 
me) as secretary? 

His reputation as a business man 
availed him nothing. 

What is the use of these lamenta¬ 
tions? 


136. Servir de, to serve as, to work as; 
avail. 


137. Servir para, to be used for, to be useful for, to be 
good for. The literal translation is to serve the purpose of, or 
to serve a purpose. 







§24 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


61 


El aceite sirve, entre otras cosas, 
para lubricar maquinas. 

iPara que sirve este instrumento? 

El acido sulfurico sirve para mu- 
chas cosas. 

Las escuelas publicas de aquel 
pais no sirven para nada. 


Oil is used, among other things, 
to lubricate machines with. 

What is this instrument used for? 

Sulphuric acid is useful for a 
great many things. 

The public schools of that country 
are good for nothing. 


138. Servirse, to be kind enough , to please; usually in the 
imperative, when making a request. 


Sirvase decirme que hora es. 

Si ustedes se sirviesen guardarme 
esta caja, me harian un gran 
favor. 


Please tell me what time it is. 

If you would kindly keep this box 
for me, yop would do me a 
great favor. 


139. Servirse <le, to make use of. 


Tuvimos que servirnos de un in- 
terprete. 

En la preparacion de esta gra- 
matica, nos hemos servtdo de las 
mejores obras que se han escrito 
sobre el asunto. 


We had to make use of an inter¬ 
preter. 

In the preparation of this gram¬ 
mar, we have made use of the 
best works that have been writ¬ 
ten on the subject. 


140. Para servir a listed (literally, to serve you), 
at your service — a polite phrase used as a respectful 
greeting, and also on taking leave of a person and in 
acknowledging an introduction. 


TEXER 

141. Use of Tener for Expressing Sensations and 
Feelings. —The experiencing of a sensation or feeling is 
often expressed by tener followed by a substantive denoting 
the sensation or feeling in question. In English, to be 
followed by an adjective is used for the same purpose. 
While in the latter language a high intensity of the sensa¬ 
tion is expressed by the adverb very , the Spanish construc¬ 
tion requires the adjective mucho , as the word to be modified 
is a substantive, not an adjective. 






62 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


24 


hambre, hunger; calor, heat; miedo, fear 

Tengo hambre; rnucho I am very hungry; very warm; 

calor; mucho miedo. very (much) afraid. 

142. Tener Followed by a Substantive or a Sub¬ 
stantive Phrase Modified by a Cardinal Numeral. 
Tener is employed in this manner to indicate age, dimen¬ 
sions, equivalence of units, etc. It is then rendered either by 
to be or by there to be. Its accusative is, in the former case, 
rendered by a predicate substantive or substantive phrase; 
in the latter, it is the subject of the English sentence. 
(See also Part 5, The Substantive Adjective.) 

The Magdalena is there two hun¬ 
dred meters wide. 

There are five kilometers in a 
league. 

How old are you? —I am twenty- 
eight years old. 


El Magdalena tiene alii dos- 
cientos metros de ancho (or, de 
anchura). 

Una legua tiene cinco kilo- 
metros. 

ICuantos ahos tiene usted? —Yo 
tengo veintiocho ahos. 


In stating a person’s age, the phrase de edad, of age, 
may be added to ahos , but it is not necessary; while, in ask¬ 
ing a person’s age, que edad, what age , may be used instead 
of cudntos ahos. 

<tQue edad tiene usted? —Yo tengo veintiocho anos de edad. 

143. Tener, to have , in the sense of to be worth. 


(iCudnto tiene esa firma? 

Don Miguel Escobar tiene mas 
de dos millones. 


How much is that firm worth? 
Mr. Michael Escobar is worth 
more than two millions. 


144. Tener que, to have to, must; tener . . . que, 
to have ... to. 


Tuvimos que arrojar la carga al 
mar. 

Hoy he tenido mucho que hacer. 


We had to throw the cargo into 
the sea. 

I have had a great deal to do 
today. 


145. Tener en cuenta, to take into account, to consider; 
tener lugar, to take place, to happen. 






24 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


63 


Usted debe iener en cuenta la con- 
dicion precaria de esa compania. 

Tenga en cuenta que el tranvla no 
ha estado funcionando sino dos 
meses. 

([Cu&ndo tnvo lugar eso? 


You must take into account the 
precarious condition of that 
company. 

Consider that the tramway has 
been in operation only two 
months. 

When did that happen? 


146. Tener razon (literally, to have reason ), to be right; 
no tener razon, to be wrong. 


Se que ten go razon en esto. 

Me parece que usted no tiene 
razon. 

El tiene mucha razon , y usted no 
la tiene. 


I know I am right in this. 

It seems to me that you are 
wrong. 

He is perfectly right, and you are 
not. 


147. Tener, to be the matter with , to ail —referring to a 
person’s health. 


Mi hermano esta muy enfermo.— 
^Si? ; r Que tiene? 

No se que tengo, pero no me siento 
bien. 


My brother is very ill. —Is that 
so? What is the matter with 
him? 

I do not know what is the matter 
with me, but I do not feel well. 


TRATAK 

148. Tratar, to treat; to make a treaty; to deal. 


Me trataron muy bien. 

Espana trato con los Estados 
Unidos. 

Es dificil tratar con esa gente. 

✓ 149. Tratar de, to try. 

Trate de venir temprano. 

El toro trato de escaparse. 

150. Tratarse de, to 
matter or a question of. 


They treated me very well. 

Spain treated with the United 
States. 

It is difficult to deal with those 
people. 


Try to come early. 

The bull tried to escape. 

be under consideration; to be a 







64 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§24 


^De que se trata? [A question 
often asked by a person on join¬ 
ing others who are talking .] 

La cosa era seria, pues no se tra- 
taba de unos pocos pesos, sitio 
de varios millones. 

^De que se trato en la reunidn 
que tuvieron ayer los oficiales? 

Ahora no se trata de si podemos 
comprar mas generos 6 no: de 
lo que se trata es de salir de los 
que tenemos. 


What is the subject of conversa¬ 
tion? or, What are you discuss¬ 
ing? or. What are you talking 
about? 

The thing was serious, for it was 
not a question of a few dollars, 
but of several millions. 

What was the subject considered 
at the meeting held yesterday 
by the officers? 

The question now is not whether 
we can buy more goods or not; 
the question is how to get rid 
of those we have. 


YALER 

151. Valer, to be worth —said of prices; Valeria pena, 
to be worth while. 


iCuanto vale este libro? 

Eso no vale la pena. 

La propuesta de esos seiiores no 
vale la pena de discutirse. 


Creo que este viaje vale la pena 
de hacerse. 


How much is this book worth? 

That is not worth while. 

Those gentlemen’s proposition is 
not worth discussing ( more lit¬ 
erally, It is not worth while to 
discuss those gentlemen’s prop¬ 
osition) . 

I think this journey is worth ma¬ 
king. 


Valer is never used in the sense of to be worth, with refer¬ 
ence to a person’s wealth. For this purpose, tener should be 
employed (Art. 142). 

152. Mas vale, it is better, it is Preferable. 


Mas vale morir de hambre que 
vivir mendigando. 

Mas vale tarde que nunca. 

Mas vale que no hayan aceptado 
nuestra oferta. 


It is better to die of hunger than 
to live by begging. 

Better late than never. 

It is better that they have not 
accepted our offer. 


153. Valer, Y r aler de, to avail. 






§24 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


65 


De nada nos valdra la mediacion 
de los americanos. 

I Que han valido nuestras protestas? 


The mediation of the Americans 
will avail us nothing. 

What have our protests availed? 


154. Yalerse de, to make use of , to resort to; to avail 
oneself of . to take advantage of. 


Tuve que valerme de un guia. 

Nos valimos del armisticio para 
reorganizar nuestro ejercito. 

Su esposa se valid de la credulidad 
de el para enganarlo. 


I had to make use of a guide. 

We availed ourselves of the armis¬ 
tice to reorganize our army. 

His wife took advantage of his 
credulity to deceive him. 


155. Haeer valer, to turn to account, to assert. 


Haga usted valer su experiencia. 
Es necesario que hagamos valer 
nuestros derechos. 


Turn your experience to account. 
It is necessary that we assert 
our rights. 


VEXIR 

156. Yenir, to come (Art. 100). 

157. Yenir, venii* bien, to fit, to become. 


Este sobretodo no me z dene {or, 
no me zdene bien). 
iQue bien le viene ese sombrero a 
la senorita Laura! 


This overcoat does not fit me. 

How becoming that hat is to Miss 
Laura! 


158. Yenir a que, to come in order that. (See Part 6, 
The Subjunctive 'after certain Conjunctive and Adverbial 
Words and Phrases.) 

159. Yenir de, Followed by an Infinitive. —The 

meaning of this expression is very similar to that of acabar 
de (Art. 48). The difference between the two is that acabar 
de simply means that the action denoted by the infinitive 
following has just been performed; while venir de indicates 
that the action has just been performed, and the agent is 
just coming from the place where the action was performed. 






66 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§24 


We are coming from dinner. 

I have just been to pay some bills. 
When I saw them, they were 
returning from hunting. 

In rendering expressions like these, the literal translation 
(which is good English, although not common), should be 
taken as a guide: I am coming from dining , I am coming 
from paying some bills. 

160. Que viene, coming , next — with reference to periods 
of time, such as weeks, years, etc. 

el mes que viene; la semana que 
viene; el ano que viene 


Yenimos cle comer. 

Yengo de pagar unas cuentas. 
Cuando los vi, venian de cazar. 


next month; next week; next year 




SPANISH GRAMMAR 

(PART 10) 


THE ADVERB 


CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS 


CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO MEANING 

1. With regard to their meaning, adverbs are divided 
into various classes, the names of which are self-explaining, 
and do not, therefore, need to be formally defined. The 
most important of these classes are: 

1. Adverbs of maimer. 


bien, zvell 
mejor, better 


mal, badly 
peor, worse 


velozmente, swiftly 
asi, thus, so 


2. Adverbs of time. 


hoy, today 
ayer, yesterday 


tarde, late 
temprano, zYzr/y 


siempre, always 
ahora, now 


jamas, never 
entonces, then 


3. Adverbs of place. 

adelante, forward 
arriba, above 


aqui, here 
alii, there 


atras, behind 
abajo, below 


4. Adverbs of quantity. 

mucho, much mas, more algo, somewhat cerca, near 

muy, very menos, less demasiado, too, too much lejos, far 

For notice of copyright, see page immediately following the title page 

ii 25 












2 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


25 


5. Adverbs of affirmation. 

si, yes | ciertamente, certainly ■ | indudablemente, undoubtedly 

6. Adverbs of negation. 

no, no, not | nada, not at all | tampoco, nor . . either 

7. Adverbs of doubt. 


quiza, perhaps \ acaso, perchance ] probablemente, likely 

Some adverbs may belong to more than one class. Thus, 
nunca, never , is an adverb both of time and of negation. 

Adverbs that are equivalent to a substantive or sub¬ 
stantive phrase modified by a demonstrative adjective are 
called demonstrative adverbs. Such are aqui, here , and 
hoy, today , which are equivalent, respectively, to en este 
lugar, in this place , and este dia, this day. 


2. It should be borne in mind that the part of speech 
to which a word belongs depends on the function it per¬ 
forms. The same word may be a substantive, an adjec¬ 
tive, or an adverb, according to its office in the sentence. 
Thus, in the first of the following examples, mucho , being 
the accusative of tengo, is a substantive; in the second, the 
same word modifies the substantive cafe , and is therefore an 
adjective; in the third, it is an adverb modifying the verbs 
habla and yerra: 


No tengo mucho, pero estoy 
contento con lo que tengo. 

El Brasil exporta mucho cafe. 

El que mucho habla mucho 
yerra. 


I.have not much, but am content 
with what I have. 

Brazil exports much coffee. 

He who talks much errs much. 


CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO FORM 

3. Primitive Adverbs. —With • regard to their form, 
adverbs, like substantives, adjectives, and verbs, may be 
either primitive or derivative. (See Part 3, Classes of 




25 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


3 


Nouns). The following may serve as examples of primi¬ 
tive adverbs: 

aqui, here I quiza, perhaps | bien, well 

hoy, today \ nunca, never | mas, more 


4. Derivative Adverbs.— Most all adverbs belonging 
to this class are formed from adjectives by means of the 
ending -mente, which indicates manner or mode, being the 
equivalent of the English -ly. If the adjective has a mascu¬ 
line and a feminine form, -mente is added to the feminine 
form; otherwise, the ending is added to the adjective, with¬ 
out altering the form of the latter. 


sabio: sabia mente 
necio: necia mente 
encantador: encantadora mente 
feliz: feliz mente 
cortes: cortes mente 
dulce: dulc zmente 


wise: wisely 
foolish: foolishly 
charming: charmingly 
happy: happily 
courteous: courteously 
sweet: sweetly 


5. Two or more adverbs in -mente cannot be connected 
by a conjunction, either expressed or tacit; the ending is 
given only to the last, being understood after the other 
adjectives. 


vitiuossi y iaifamente 
valerosa, pero cautamente 
dulce , encantadoramentG 
ni justSL , honradB. , ni decente- 

mente. 


virtuously and wisely 
bravely but cautiously 
sweetly, charmingly 
neither justly, honestly, nor 
decently. 


As will be observed, when the ending -mente is understood, 
the feminine form of the adjective is employed, as when the 
ending is actually added. 

6. The adverb recientemente, recently, is apocopated 
to reciSn when it modifies and precedes a participle. It may 
then be generally rendered by newly or new. The expression 
estar recien followed by a participle is better translated by 
to have just. 




4 SPANISH 

Recientemente se han eonstrm'do 
seis buques de guerra. 

La firma de Toro y Guzman 
quebro recientemente. 

En el incendio perecio un nino 
recien nacido. 

El acueducto estaba recien ter- 
minado cuando yo estuve alb. 

Estamos recien Ilegados , y aun 
no conocemos bien la ciudad. 


GRAMMAR § 25 

Six warships have been built re¬ 
cently. 

The firm of Toro and Guzman 
failed recently. 

A new-born child perished in the 
conflagration. 

The aqueduct had just been fin¬ 
ished when I was there. 

We have just arrived (or, are 
newcomers), and are not yet 
well acquainted with the city. 


FORMS OF COMPARISON 


THE COMPARATIVES MAS AND MENOS 

7 . The Formulas of Comparison Mas . . . Que, 
Menos . . . Qne. - These two expressions mean, respect¬ 
ively, more than and less than. In them, mas and menos may 
be either adverbs or adjectives, according' to the word they 
modify, or to the character of the comparison they serve to 
express. As an adverb, mas may modify an adjective or 
another adverb, with either of which it forms a comparative 
phrase usually called the comparative degree of the adjec¬ 
tive or of the adverb, as the case may be. This term, how¬ 
ever, is more properly applied to a special derived word 
by which the phrase in question can be replaced, such as 
mejor, better , which is the equivalent of mas bueno, more 
good. Using the term in this restricted sense, the following 
adjectives and adverbs are the only ones that have a com- 

mejor, better 

peor, worse 

mayor, greater, larger 
men or, smaller , less 

menos, less; fewer 


parative degree: 

bueno, good: 
bien, well: 
malo, bad: 
mal, badly , ill: 
grande, great , large: 
pequeno, small , little: 
poco, little: 
pocos, few: 






SPANISH GRAMMAR 


5 


§ 25 


These forms can always be replaced by the phrases mds 
bueno, mas bleu, mas malo , mas mal, mds grande, mas pequeno , 
mas poco, mas pocos, respectively. In all other cases, com¬ 
parison of superiority is expressed by means of mas, more. 
Comparison of inferiority is always expressed by menos, less. 


Tenemos mds generates que sol- 
dados, y menos juicio que en- 
tusiasmo. 

Los Estados Unidos exportan mds 
trigo que la Argentina. 

^No cree usted que aqui se piensa 
mds en el dinero que en el 
honor? 

En la America del Norte hay 
menos rios que en la del Sur, 
pero en esta hay menos lagos 
que en aquella. 

Este cuarto es mejor que el mio. 

Ella habla ingles peor que yo. 

Usted habla trances mejor que 
aleman. 

La senorita Rosa es mas bonita 
que la hermana. 

El aire es mas (lenso en los 
valles que en las montanas. 

Los trabajadores son mas es- 
casos en los estados del norte 
que en los del sur. 

Europa es mas pequena que 
N orte-America. 

Lincoln fue sin duda mucho mas 
grande que Washington. 

Mi corresponsal llego nias tem- 
prano que yo. 

Nuestra fabrica queda mas le- 
3os de la estacion del ferro- 
carril que del muelle. 

Yo vivo mas cerca del correo 
que de la oficina del cable. 


We have more generals than 
soldiers, and less judgment than 
enthusiasm. 

The United States exports more 
wheat than Argentina. 

Do you not think that people here 
think more about money than 
about honor? 

There are fewer rivers in North 
America than in South America, 
but in the latter there are fewer 
lakes than in the former. 

This room is better than mine. 

She speaks English worse than I. 

Ycyi speak French better than 
German. 

Miss Rose is prettier than her 
sister. 

Air is denser in the valleys than 
in the mountains. 

W'orking men are scarcer in the 
northern states than in the 
southern. 

Europe is smaller than North 
America. 

Lincoln was without doubt much 
greater than Washington. 

My correspondent arrived earlier 
than I. 

Our factory is farther from the 
railroad station than from the 
wharf. 

I live nearer to the post office 
than to the cable office. 


8. Mayor and Menor. —Although, as said in the last 
article, mayor and menor are the comparative degrees of 
grande and pequeno , respectively, they are seldom employed 


6 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


25 


as such with reference to sizi 
guage and in a few common 
fourth sentences given below. 

Ocho es mayor que seis y me- 
nor que doce. 

El area de un circulo es poco 
mayor que el area de un poli- 
gono regular de quinientos doce 
lados inscrito en el circulo. 

El todo es mayor que cada una 
de sus partes. 

Cada una de las partes de un todo 
es menor que el todo. 

El descuento que ustedes nos 
ofrecen es menor que el que 
otros fabricantes nos dan. 

Las dificultades en el aprendizaje 
de un idioiua extranjero son 
mayores para un adulto que 
para un nino. 

Ray muchas mujeres que le tie- 
nen mayor carino a su perro 
que k sus hijos. 


Nueva-York es mas grande 
que Washington. 

Mi tienda es mas pequena que 
la suya. 

Este caballo es mas grande 
que aquel. 

La cocina es mas pequena qzie 
el comedor, y los dos juntos 
son mas pequenos que este 
cuarto. 


, except in mathematical lan- 
phrases, as in the third and 

Eight is greater than six and less 
than twelve. 

The area of a circle is little larger 
than the area of a regular poly¬ 
gon of five hundred twelve 
sides inscribed in the circle. 

The whole is greater than each of 
its parts. 

Each of the parts of a whole is 
less than the whole. 

The discount that you offer Us is 
less than that which other man¬ 
ufacturers give us. 

The difficulties in the learning of 
a foreign language are greater 
for an adult than for a child. 

There are many women that have 
greater affection for their dog 
than for their children. 


New York is larger than Wash¬ 
ington. 

My store is smaller than yours. 

This horse is larger than that one. 

The kitchen is smaller than the 
dining room, and the two 
together are smaller than this 
room. 


9 . With reference to age, 
and younger , respectively. 

iEs usted mayor que su her- 
mano? — No, senor; no soy ni 
mayor ni menor, pues el y yo 
somos mellizos. 


mayor and menor mean older 


Are you older than your brother? — 
No, sir; I am neither older nor 
younger, for he and I are twins. 





25 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


7 


10. Tlie Forms Mas . . . tie lo qne, Menos . . . tie 
lo que. - When the second member of a comparison con¬ 
tains a verb, que is usually replaced by de lo que. 


Yo traduzco el ingles mejor tie lo 
que lo hablo. 

El sol es mucho mas grande de 
lo que parece. 

La medicina esta mucho menos 
adelantada tie lo que general- 
mente se cree. 

El sabe mas tie lo que ha dicho. 


I translate English better than I 
speak it. 

The sun is much larger than it 
looks. 

Medicine is much less advanced 
than is generally believed. 

He knows more than he has told. 


11. If, in the first member of a comparison, mas or 
menos modifies an accusative noun, which is implied as the 
accusative also of the verb in the second member, lo is 
replaced by the appropriate substantivized article represent¬ 
ing that noun. The literal translation of the article and the 
que to which it serves as antecedent is indicated in the fol¬ 
lowing sentences by the words in brackets: 


Hallamos mas oposicion de la que 
esperabamos. 

El edificio tiene mas defectos de 
los que a primera vista se 
notan. 

Nos han enviado menos cafe del 
que pedimos. 


We found more opposition than 
[that which] we expected. 

The building has more defects 
than [those that] are noticed at 
first sight. 

They have sent us less coffee than 
[that which] we ordered. 


12 . In the cases considered in the last two examples, 
que may replace the phrases de lo que , del que , de los que, etc.; 
but this form of construction is rather unusual. 


Yo traduzco el ingles mejor que lo hablo. 

El sol es mucho mas grande que parece. 

Hallhmos mas oposicion que esperabamos. 

13 . Mas de, Menos de.— Before a cardinal or a parti¬ 
tive numeral, or a phrase expressing quantity or number, 
mds de and menos de are used instead of mas que and menos que, 
respectively. 





8 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§25 


Esa casa vale mas de cuarenta 
mil pesos. 

Hemos perdido mas de diez por 
ciento del dinero que invertlmos 
en esa empresa. 

No puedo vender este azucar por 
menos de tres centavos la 
libra. 

Mas de la mitad de la ciudad 
fue destruida por el terremoto. 


j That house is worth more than 
forty thousand dollars. 

We have lost more than ten per 
cent, of the money we invested 
in that enterprise. 

I cannot sell this sugar for less 
than three cents a pound. 

More than one-half of the city was 
destroyed by the earthquake. 


14. Mas que , followed by a word or phrase denoting 
number, may also be employed in negative sentences, but 
then the combination no . . . mas que means only or but rather 
than not more than. The same combination, with the same 
meaning, may be followed by words or phrases not denoting 
number. 


Espana no ha producido mas 
que un escritor verdadera- 
rnente grande —Cervantes. 
Colombia no tiene mas que 
tres puertos importantes sobre 
el mar de las Antillas. 

En este barrio de la ciudad no 
viven mas que chinos. 

Ustedes no necesitan mas que pre- 
sentarle esta tarjeta al adminis- 
trador del banco. 

In all these examples, no . 
no . . . sino, which also meat 


Spain has produced but a truly 
great writer —Cervantes. 

Colombia has only three impor¬ 
tant ports on the Caribbean 
sea. 

Only Chinese live in this quarter 
of the city. 

You need but to present this card 
to the manager of the bank. 

. mas que may be replaced by 

only, but. 


Espana no ha producido sino un escritor verdaderamente grande 
— Cervantes. 

Colombia no tiene sino tres puertos importantes sobre el mar de las 
Antillas. 

En este barrio de la ciudad no viven sino chinos. 


SUPERLATIVE FORMS 

15. Superlative Degree of Adjectives. —Mds and 
menos may be joined to an adjective or an adverb, to form 
phrases indicating that, among three or more objects of 





§25 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


9 


thought possessing the attribute denoted by the adjective or 
adverb, the one to which the phrase is applied possesses it 
in the highest degree, if mds is the modifier; in the lowest 
degree, if menos is the modifier. These phrases are called 
superlative phrases. A superlative phrase consisting of 
an adjective or adverb modified by mas is called the superla¬ 
tive degree of the adjective or of the adverb, as the case 
may be. 

The adverbs mds and menos used in superlative phrases 
are literally equivalent to most and least , respectively, 
although in some cases the superlative degree is in English 
expressed by means of the ending -est. This ending has no 
Spanish equivalent, and the only adjectives and adverbs in 
which the superlative degree may be expressed by one word 
are those in which the comparative degree may be likewise 
expressed; that is, bueno, bien , etc. (Art. 7), the superlative 
degrees of which are the same as the comparative; that is, 
either mejor or mds bueno , either peor or mds malo, etc. 


16. A substantive modified by a superlative phrase or its 
equivalent should take the definite article, when comparison is 
made among several things possessing the attribute denoted 
by the adjective. If, however, the substantive is modified 
by a possessive adjective, the article is dispensed with. In 
this respect, the Spanish construction is the same as the 
English, except that, if the superlative phrase is followed by 
a prepositional adverbial phrase denoting place or locality, 
ole, of, is the proper Spanish preposition to use, instead of e?i, 
which is the literhl equivalent of in. 

As a rule, a superlative phrase modifying a substantive 
preceded by the article, follows the substantive. The 
single-word superlatives mejor , peor , mayor , and menor may 
either precede or follow the substantive. 


El Amazonas es el rio mas grande 
del mundo. 

El hombre menos sospechoso hu- 
biera dudado de la sinceridad 
del testigo. 


The Amazon is the largest river 
in the world. 

The least suspicious man would 
have doubted the sincerity of 
the witness. 



10 

Anoche vl k la bailarina mas fa- 
mosa de Espana. 

La quinina es el remedio mas 
usado para las fiebres intermi- 
tentes. 

Tu eres mi mds querido amigo. 

Sus dias mds tristes fueron los que 
paso en el destierro. 

El doctor Rojas es el mejor me¬ 
dico de la ciudad. 

Parece que usted nos ha dado el 
peor vino que tenia. 

Lo hare con el mayor placer. 

Esa es la menor dificultad. 

Jose es el mayor de mis cuatro her- 
manos. 

Don Federico vino con su hijo 
menor. 


§25 

Last night I saw the most famous 
female dancer in Spain. 

Quinine is the most used remedy 
for intermittent fevers. 

Thou art my dearest friend. 

His saddest days were those he 
spent in exile. 

Doctor Rojas is the best physician 
in the city. 

It seems that you have given us 
the worst wine you had. 

I will do it with the greatest 
pleasure. 

That is the least (or, smallest) 
difficulty. 

Joseph is the eldest of my four 
brothers. 

Mr. Frederic came with his young¬ 
est son. 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


17 . Neither the definite article nor a possessive adjec¬ 
tive indicates by itself superlative degree, there being no 
difference in form between this degree and the comparative. 
Which one is intended must be determined by the context or 
the circumstances. 


Este es el mejor restaurante de 
los dos. 

Este es el mejor restaurante de la 
ciudad. 

iCudl de ustedes dos es mayor? — 
Yo soy mayor, aunque mi her- 
mano es mds alto. 

iCudl de sus tres ninitos es 
mayor?— Juan es mayor, aun¬ 
que Antonio es mds alto. 


This is the better restaurant of 
the two. 

This is the best restaurant in the 
city. 

Which of you two is older? —I am 
older, although my brother is 
taller. 

Which of your three little children 
is oldest? —John is oldest, al¬ 
though Anthony is tallest. 


18 . In the last example, and in all other expressions of 
like form, the employment of the article is preferable to its 
omission. 


iCudl de sus tres ninitos es el mayor? —Juan es el mayor, aunque 
Antonio es el mds alto. 




25 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


11 


Here the article is substantivized, the substantive nihitos 
being implied in it. So in English, Which of your three little 
children is the oldest ( o?ie)f 


19. Mayor is often employed as a superlative to indicate 
prominence or importance, without any necessary implication 
as to size or any other specified property. 

el altar mayor; la iglesia mayor; the high altar; the cathedral (lit¬ 

is. plaza mayor; el palo mayor. erally, the main church); the 

principal square; the main¬ 
mast. 

20. A predicate superlative phrase does not take the 
definite article. 


Me siento mas feliz cuando estoy 
en el mar. 

Los empleados se muestran menos 
sat is fechos cuando son mejor 
tratados. 


I feel happiest when I am at sea. 

The employes show themselves 
least satisfied when they are 
best treated. 


21. When a substantive following another with which it 
is in apposition is modified by a superlative phrase, the 
article is occasionally placed after the first-mentioned sub¬ 
stantive; but it is equally proper, and more common, to place 
the article before the substantive. 


El azucar y el tabaco, productos 
los mas importantes de Cuba 
(or, los productos m&s impor¬ 
tantes de Cuba), pagan enormes 
derechos de aduana. 

En Alemania se bebe mucho la 
cerveza, bebida la mas popular 
del pais (or, la bebida mas 
popular del pais). 


Sugar and tobacco, the most im¬ 
portant products of Cuba, pay 
enormous custom-house duties. 


In Germany people drink much 
beer—the most popular drink in 
the country. 


22. The neuter lo naturally excludes the definite article, 
as this article is implied in that neuter. 





12 SPANISH GRAMMAR §25 


Ahora lo mds importante es ter- 
minar esa lista. 

Lo mas caro no es siempre lo 
mejor , ni lo mas barato lo peor. 


The most important thing now is 
to finish that list. 

The most expensive things are 
not always the best, nor the 
cheapest the worst. 


23. The superlative expressions de los mds , de las mds, 
following a substantive, are often used rather to intensify 
the degree of the quality denoted by the adjective they 
modify than to establish a comparison among several objects 
possessing the same quality. They are then better rendered 
by very, most, exceedingly. If the substantive is singular, it 
should be preceded by the indefinite article. 


Tiene una casa de las mds Iter- 
mo sas. 

Aqui se hacen pianos de los 
mejores (or, de los mas buenos). 

El doctor me dio unas pildoras de 
las mds amargas. 


He has a most handsome house. 

Very good pianos ( or , Pianos of 
the best quality) are made here. 
The doctor gave me some exceed¬ 
ingly bitter pills. 


When it is intended to convey the idea of comparison, the 
phrase de los is usually placed before the substantive. The 
position of a superlative phrase is then after the substantive; 
that of a single-word superlative, either before or after. 


Tiene una de las casas mds her- 
mosas de la ciudad. 

Aqui se hacen algunos de los 
pianos mejores (or, de los me¬ 
jores pianos) que se venden en 
este pais. 

El doctor me dio unas de las pil¬ 
doras mds amargas que encon- 
tro en la botica. 


He has one of the handsomest 
houses in the city. 

Some of the best pianos that are 
sold in this country are made 
here. 

The doctor gave me some of the 
bitterest pills he found in the 
drug store. 


24. Other Superlative Phrases and Words.— The 
superlative degree of adverbs, like that of adjectives, is 
formed by means of mas, most , except in the case of bien, 
well , and mal (or, malamente), badly, which have the 
special superlatives mejor, best, and peor, worst, respect¬ 
ively. Superlative adverb phrases should never be pre¬ 
ceded by the article. In general, a superlative word or 





25 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


13 


phrase can take the article only when the latter is sub¬ 
stantivized, as in the cases treated in the foregoing arti¬ 
cles. It should be noticed that mds and menos, like most 
and least in English, may by themselves modify a verb, 
forming with it superlative verbal phrases; or, as neuter 
substantives, be the accusatives of transitive verbs, indi¬ 
cating the greatest (or fewest) number or the largest (or 
least) quantity of that to which they refer (things, money, 
services, etc.). Again, as adjectives, they may form super¬ 
lative substantive phrases, mds meaning then most or the 
greatest number , and menos meaning either least or fewest. In 
the second example given below, mds and menos form with 
habla and sabe , respectively, superlative verbal phrases; a 
similar phrase is formed by come and peor in the third. In 
the sixth, mds is the accusative of esperaba; and in the 
last, mds and menos form superlative substantive phrases with 
the substantives diyiero and acciones, respectively. 


iCu&l de los tres caballos corre 
mas velozmente ? 

Quien mds habla es a menudo 
quien menos sabe. 

feste es el restaurante en que se 
come peor y se paga mds. 

Naturalmente, los que llegaron 
mds temprano se posesionaron 
de los pocos asientos que habla. 

Los Estados Unidos son sin duda 
el pals en que se viaja mds 
comodamente. 

De los que hablaron aquel dla, 
Castelar, de quien mds se es¬ 
peraba, fue el que hablo menos 
elocuentemente. 

Don Antonio, que tenia mds di- 
nero, compro menos acciones. 


Which of the three horses runs 
fastest? 

He who talks most is often the 
one who knows least. 

This is the restaurant where one 
eats worst and pays most. 

Naturally, those who arrived 
earliest took possession of the 
few seats there were. 

The United States is without 
doubt the country where one 
travels most comfortably. 

Of those who spoke that day, 
Castelar, from whom most was 
expected, was the one who 
spoke least eloquently. 

Mr. Anthony, who had the most 
money, bought the fewest 
shares. 


25. Lo followed by a superlative word or phrase modify¬ 
ing an expression denoting possibility, is literally equivalent 
to the; but such combinations are usually better rendered by 



14 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


25 


means of as and the verb can, in the manner illustrated by 
the following examples: 


Venga lo mas temprano posible. 

Despachen estos bultos lo mas a- 
prisa que puedan. 

Sirvanos de comer lo mas pronto 
posible, pues estamos de prisa. 
Gastamos lo menos que pudimos. 
Hemos tratado de hacer este texto 
lo mas completo, lo mas practico, 
y en todo respecto lo mejor 
posible. 

26. Either los mas de or l 
lish most all, the most of, in th 
or the majority of. When reft 
to numbers, lo mds de renders 
part of, most all. 


Come as early as you can ( lit¬ 
erally , the earliest possible). 

Send off these bales as fast as you 
can ( literally , the fastest you 
can). 

Serve dinner to us as soon as pos¬ 
sible, for we are in haste. 

We spent as little as we could. 

We have tried to make this text¬ 
book as complete, practical, 
and in every respect as good as 
possible. 

x mayor parte renders the Eng- 
; sense of the greater number of, 
rence is made to quantity, not 
the English most of, the greater 


Los mds de los barberos de este 
pueblo son italianos. 

Nosotros importamos de Colombia 
la mayor parte de las esmeraldas 
que vendemos. 

La mayor parte de la gente cree 
que toda la America del Sur es 
cdlida y malsana. 

Lo mds del trapiche esta ya mon- 
tado'. 

En lo mds de aquella region ar- 
diente no se ven sino bosques y 
fieras. 


The most of the barbers in this 
town are Italians. 

We import from Colombia the 
greater part of the emeralds 
we sell. 

Most people think that the whole 
of South America is hot and 
unhealthful. 

Most all the sugar mill is already 
installed. 

In the greater part of that burn¬ 
ing region, one sees nothing but 
woods and wild beasts. 


TANTO, COMO, CUANTO, CUAL 

27. Comparison of f Equality. — Comparison of equal¬ 
ity, whether with regard to quality, quantity, number, or 
anything else that is susceptible of being compared, is 
effected by means of the formula tanto . . . como, in which 





25 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


15 


tanto may be either an adjective or an adverb. As an adjec¬ 
tive, the singular form tanto,-a refers to quantity, and means 
either as much or so much; the plural form ta?itos,-as refers 
to number, and means either as many or so many. As an 
adverb, tanto means either as or so, as much or so much: when 
it precedes an adjective or another adverb (or their equiva¬ 
lents) it is apocopated to tan. The correlative of tanto is 
como, which introduces the second member of the compari¬ 
son, and means as. 


Juan tiene tanta ambicion como I 
Pedro, pero no tiene tanto s 
recursos. 

Su cabello es tan bianco como la 
nieve. 

Nosotros no fuimos tan afortuna- 
dos como usted. 

Maria no cose tan aprisa como 
Josefina, pero cose mejor. 

Si ustedes trabajaran tanto como 
hablan, serian millonarios. 

El senor Lopez no viene a vernos 
tan a menu do como solia. 

Yo he sido tan desgraciado como 
usted ha sido afortunado. 


John has as much ambition as 
Peter, but he has not so many 
resources. 

His hair is as white as snow. 

We were not so lucky as you. 

Mary does not sew so fast as 
Josephine, but she sews better. 

If you worked as much as you 
talk, you would be millionaires. 

Mr. Lopez does not come to see 
us so often as he used to. 

I have been as unfortunate as you 
have been fortunate. 


28. The adverb tan, like its English equivalent as, is 
often omitted, being understood. 

.Su cabello es ahora bianco como His hair is now white as snow, 
la nieve. 

Estoy pobre como un mendigo. I am poor as a beggar. 


When similarity, rather than identity, of attributes is to be 
expressed, como may be replaced by aial. In this case, if 
como or cual is followed by a substantive or a substantive 
phrase, it should be rendered by like; otherwise, by as. 


Su cabello es ahora bianco cual 
la nieve. 

Aquel conquistador era valeroso 
cual (or, como) el leon, pero 
alevoso cual (or, como) el tigre. 


His hair is now white like snow. 

That conqueror was brave like 
the lion, but treacherous like 
the tiger. 




16 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§25 


El anarquista llevaba la mano 
envuelta en un panuelo, cual 
(or, como) si le fuese imposible 
usarla. 


The anarchist carried his hand 
wrapped in a handkerchief, as 
if it were impossible for him to 
use it. 


29. It should be borne in mind that when tanto is an 
adjective, a neuter (in which case it means as much, as many 
things, or so much, so many things), or an adverb modifying a 
verb or a comparative word or phrase; or when the adjective 
or adverb it modifies is not expressed, it is not apocopated. 
The same rule applies when tanto, either by itself or with 
que as its correlative, is used as a term of intensification. 


Aunque he viajado por todo el 
mundo, no he visto tanto como 
usted dice haber visto en Cali¬ 
fornia. 

Tanto rogaron, que al fin obtu- 
vieron lo que deseaban. 

Si usted ha hecho eso, tanto 
peor para usted. 

iEs usted tan paciente como su 
hermano? —No, senor, no tanto. 

He estado tan enfermo que no 
he podido salir. 


Although I have traveled all over 
the world, I have not seen so 
much as you say to have seen 
in California. 

They begged so much, that they 
finally got what they wanted. 

If you have done that, so much 
the worse for you. 

Are you as patient as your 
brother? —No, sir; not so much. 

I have been so ill that I have not 
been able to go out. 


30. When como, as the correlative of tanto, is followed 
by a verb, an adjective, or a prepositional phrase, it may be 
replaced by cuanto. The apocopated form cuan may be 
employed before an adjective, but the preference is given to 
the full form. 


Si usted trabajara tanto cuanto 
habla, seria millonario. 

Lo hice tanto por placer cuanto 
por necesidad. 

Los soldados estaban tan mal 
armados cuanto (or, cuan) 
descontentos. 

Deseo ir k Sur-America, tanto 
por conocer esa parte del mun¬ 
do, cuanto por ver si puedo 
emprender alii algun negocio. 


If you worked as much as you 
talk, you would be a millionaire. 

I did it as much from pleasure as 
from necessity. 

The soldiers were as badly armed 
as discontented. 

I wish to go to South America, as 
much to become acquainted 
with that part of the world, as 
to see if I can undertake some 
business there. 





§25 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


17 


Tanto is often omitted, being understood, and then cuanto 
may be rendered by as zvell as. 

“La victoria fue facil, cuanto de- J “The victory was easy, as well as 
cisiva.’’ decisive.” 

If the tacit tan and its correlative cuanto modify the same 
adjective or adverb, the -apocopated form cuan occupies, in 
the elliptic sentence, the same place that tan occupies in the 
full sentence. In the latter form, however, como is prefer¬ 
able to cuajito. 

Entraremos tail calladamente 
ctianto ( better , como) po- 
damos. 

Entraremos cuan calladamente 
podamos. 

“En toda la casa, tan grande 
como era, no habia una sola 
pieza habitable.” 

“En toda la casa, cuan grande 
era, no habia una sola pieza 
habitable.” 

31. When tanto is a neuter, it may take cuanto as its 
correlative, the two being accusatives of two different verbs. 
In this case, tanto means the same as todo, all; and the 
expression tanto cuanto may be replaced by todo cuanto or 
todo lo que, both of which mean all which. 

Tengo tanto cuanto necesito. 

Tengo todo cuanto necesito. 

Tengo todo lo qtie necesito. 

In general, both todo cuanto and ctianto, used as neuters, 
are synonymous with todo lo que, all which; while todos 
cuantos, or simply cuantos , means the same as todos los 
que, all those that. As an adjective, cuantos means the same 
as todos los . . . que, all the . . . that , all . . . that. 

Cuanto (or, Todo cuanto ) hay en Everything there is in these rooms 
estos cuartos es de nosotros. is ours. 

No puedo creer nada de cuanto I cannot believe anything of all 
(or, todo cuanto ) esos hombres that those men have said, 
han dicho. 


I have as much as (or, all) I need. 


We will go in as quietly as we can. 


“In the whole house, large as it 
was, there was not one single 
habitable room.” 





18 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§25 


Tal es la opinion de cuantos han 
estudiado el asunto. 

Yo puedo darle cuantos datos ne- 
cesite (or, todos los datos qtce 
necesite). 


Such is the opinion of all those 
who have studied the subject. 

I can give you all the data you 
may need. 


32. The expression tanto . . . como, in which both tanto 
and como are followed by a substantive, is often employed 
in the sense of both . . . and, as well as. Although cuanto 


may then take the place of 
preferred. 

Todo lo he perdido, tanto mi 
dinero como el de usted. 

Tanto los generos de lino como 
los de algodon cuestan ahora 
muchisimo. 

Todas las maquinas que habia 
aqui las mande al vapor, tanto 
las que ustedes me mandaron 
ayer como las que yo tenia antes. 


como, the latter is generally 


I have lost all —my money as well 
as yours. 

Both linen and cotton goods cost 
a great deal now. 

I sent to the steamer all the ma¬ 
chines that were here, both 
those you sent me yesterday 
and those I had before. 


33. The Formulas Cuanto mas . . . tanto mas, 
Etc.—The English the more . . . the more— as in the more 
one reads the more one learns—is rendered by any of the 
following expressions, all of which are equivalent: mientras 
mas . . . mds, mientras mas . . . tanto mas, cuanto mds . . . 
mas, cuanto mds . . . tanto mds. The expressions the 
more . . . the less, the less . . . the more, etc. are similarly 
translated, less being rendered by menos. 


Mientras uno mds tiene, mds de¬ 
sea tener. 

Cuanto el hombre mds estudia, 
tanto mas ignorante se siente. 

Parecia que los dos senadores se 
entendian tanto menos cuanto 
mds discutian. 

Cuanto menos le cobre a ese senor, 
tanto mds pronto le pagara. 

Estas explicaciones son tan oscu- 
ras, que cuanto uno mds las lee 
tanto menos las entiende. 


The more one has, the more one 
wishes to have. 

The more man studies, the more 
ignorant he feels. 

It seemed that the two senators 
understood each other the less, 
the more they disputed. 

The less you dun that gentleman, 
the sooner he will pay you. 

These explanations are so obscure, 
that the more one reads them, 
the less one understands them. 





§25 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


19 


Similarly, 

Mientras itiejor me porto yo con 
el, tanto peor se porta el con- 
migo. 

Cuanto mas dinero ponga nsted en 
esa empresa, tanto peor para 
usted. 


The better I treat him, the worse 
he treats me. 

The more money you put into 
that undertaking, the* worse it 
will be for you. 


34. The Formulas Tanto mas . . . cuanto. Etc. 

The expressions tanto mas . . . cuanto , tanto me7ios . . . 
cuanto are equivalent, respectively, to the English forms 
all the more . . . because , all the less . . . because. 


El comercio con esos paises es 
tatito mas dificil cuanto las vias 
de comunicacion son pocas y 
malas. 

La noticia fue tanto mas agrada- 
ble cuanto nos llego inesperada- 
mente. 

Una maquina como esa seria 
tanto menos eficiente cuanto 
aqui el carbon es sumamente 
costoso. 

Las dificultades que tuvimos que 
superar fueron tanto mayores, 
cjianto careciamos de bueyes y I 
mulas para trasportar el mate- \ 
rial. 

La conducta del doctor Diaz al 
ausentarse no me parece justi- 
ficable en ningun sentido; tanto 
menos cuanto el sabe que aqui 
es imposible conseguir otro 
medico. 

Los caminos estaban en una con- 
dicion tanto peor cuanto aquella 
noche habia llovido a torrentes 
y habia habido un huraean de 
los mas fuertes. (See Art. 23.) 


Trade with those countries is all 
the more difficult because the 
means of communication are 
few and bad. 

The news was alhthe more pleas¬ 
ing because it reached us unex¬ 
pectedly. 

An engine like that would be 
all the less efficient because coal 
is exceedingly expensive here. 

The difficulties we had to sur¬ 
mount were all the greater 
because we lacked oxen and 
mules to transport the material. 

Dr. Diaz’s behavior in absenting 
himself does not seem to me 
justifiable in any respect; so 
much the less as he knows 
that it is impossible to get 
another physician here. 

The roads were in a condition all 
the worse (or, The condition of 
the roads was all the worse) 
because that night it had rained 
in torrents and there had been 
an exceedingly strong hurri¬ 
cane. 


In all expressions like these, cuanto que may be substituted 





20 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§25 


for cuanto. The q7ie, although very commonly used, is 
unnecessary, as it does not alter the meaning of the sentence 
in the least. 

El comercio con esos paises es tanto mas dificil cuanto que las vias 
de comunicacion son pocas y malas. 

Una maquina como esa seria tanto menos eliciente cuanto que aqui 
el carbon es sumamente costoso. 


USES OF SOME IMPORTANT ADVERBS* 


ACA, AQTJI—ALLA, ALLI, AH1 


35. Aca and Aqui. —These words are both demonstra¬ 
tive adverbs of place, meaning here. They differ in that acd 
is generally employed with verbs denoting motion, and aqui 
with verbs denoting location. When so employed, acd prop¬ 
erly means hither, to this place , while aqici means here, in 
this place. 


Venga acd , Juanito. 

Traigame ese libro aca. 

,-Estd don Jose aqui? 

Espereme aqui , mientras voy a 
poner este telegrama. 

;Quien vive aqui? 


Come here, Johnny. 

Bring that book here to me. 

Is Mr. Joseph here? 

Wait for me here, while I go to 
send this telegram. 

Who lives here? 


With a prepositional phrase specifying the place referred 
to, either aqui or acd may follow a verb of motion. 


Venga \ 


aqui 

aca 


a mi oficina manana. 


Come here to my office tomorrow. 


36. Alii, Alla, Alii.— These also are demonstrative 
adverbs of place. A hi means the same as en ese lugai*, in 
that place, referring to a place where the listener is, or which 
is nearer to him than to the speaker, but not remote from 
the latter; alii and alia are equivalent (1) to en ese lugar, 


* Several of the words here treated may perform other offices besides 
that of adverbs. For the sake of completeness, the most important 
non-adverbial uses of them will be given in connection with their 
adverbial uses. 







25 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


21 


in that place, referring to the place where the listener or 
reader is, when that place is remote from the speaker or 
writer; (2) to aquel lugar, yonder place, en aquel ltigar, 
in yonder place, referring to a place which is remote from 
both the speaker or writer and the listener or reader. The 
difference between alii and alia is that, in general, the former 
applies to verbs denoting location; the latter, to verbs 
denoting either location or motion. Alla is, therefore, of a 
wider application than alii, and can always replace the latter. 
Although this rule covers the most common uses of alii and 
alia , it is by no means absolute, these two adverbs being by 
many treated as interchangeable in all cases. 


iQue libro tiene usted ahi? 
Cuando usted me escriba, aviseme 
cuantos trapiches se han mon- 
tado alii (or, alia). 

<[Ha estado usted en Cartagena 
ultimamente? — No, senor; pero 
manana pienso ir alia. 
iEs usted del Brasil? —No, senor; 
voy alia con frecuencia, pero no 
soy de alii {or, de alia). 


What book have you there? 

When you write to me, let me 
know how many sugar mills 
have been installed there. 

Have you been in Carthagena 
lately? — No, sir; but I intend to 
go there tomorrow. 

Are you from Brazil? —No, sir; I 
go there often, but I am not 
from there. 


37. Alla may refer to a remote time, either past or 
future. It is then a sort of expletive or emphatic word, 
serving simply to call attention to the remoteness of the 
time, and need not be translated, although, in some cases, it 
may be rendered by then, in those old times, or some such 
expression, according to circumstances. 


Esto sucedio alia en los tiempos 
mitologicos. 

Alla cuando el papa era amo de 
la Europa, pocos se atrevian a 
expresar libremente sus ideas. 


This happened in the olden myth¬ 
ological times. 

In times of old, when the pope 
was the master of Europe, few 
dared to express their ideas 
freely. 


It is also used in familiar style with reference to future 
events, in the literal sense of udien the time comes. In trans¬ 
lating it, however, it is not necessary to employ this English 




22 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


25 


phrase, which is implied in the future form of the verb, as 
well as understood from the circumstances. 


Alla vera usted que lo que le digo 
es verdad. 

En fin, alia veremos. 


You shall see (when the time 
comes) that what I tell you is 
the truth. 

Well, we shall see. 


When so used, alia may be replaced by ya. 


Ya vera usted que lo que le digo es verdad. —En fin, ya veremos. 


38. De aqui, Be alii.—Each of these expressions has 
different meanings, according to the circumstances in which 
it is used: 


1. de aqui, hence; de alii, thence. 


La armada de Espana era muy 
inferior k la americana, y estaba 
muy mal dirigida; de aqui la 
facilidad con que fuevencida. 

Habia varios pretendientes al 
trono, todos ambiciosos y desal- 
mados; de alii la anarqia que 
reino en el pais por rn&s de 
cuatro anos. 


The Spanish navy was far inferior 
to the American, and was very 
poorly managed; hence the ease 
with which it was vanquished. 

There were several aspirants to 
the throne, all ambitious and 
unscrupulous; thence the an¬ 
archy that reigned in the coun¬ 
try for over four years. 


2. de aqui, of ( in) this place; de alii, of ( in ) that place. 
When so used, alii may be replaced by alia. 


l£ste es el hotel mejor de aqui. 

La gente de aqui no ama el dinero 
tanto como la de su pais. 

Las costumbres de alii (or, de 
alia) son muy diferentes de las 
de aqui. 


This is the best hotel in this place 
(or, the best hotel here). 

The people of this place (or. 
People here) do not love money 
so much as those of your coun¬ 
try. 

The customs there are very differ¬ 
ent from those here. 


3. de aqui a, from now; de alii a, since then , after that 
time. 





SPANISH GRAMMAR 


23 


§25 

de aqui a ocho dias; de aqui a 
dos anos 

de alii a tres meses; de alii a 
cuarenta y ocho horas 


eight days from now; two years 
from now 

three months after that time; 
forty-eight hours after that 
time 


4. tie aqui que, hence it is that (with the appropriate 
changes for tense), hence the fact that; de alii que, thence it 
is that , thence the fact that. 


Los catolicos de entonces inter- 
pretaban la Biblia en su sentido 
literal; de aqui que la teoria 
copemicana encontrase tanta 
oposicion. 


The Catholics of those times in¬ 
terpreted the Bible in its literal 
sense; hence the fact that the 
Copernican theory met with so 
much opposition. 


39. For alia. For aca. — These phrases are restricted to 
familiar style. The literal meaning of por alia is thereabout , 
and that of por aca is hereabout. They are used in an indef¬ 
inite and vague sense, and may usually be rendered by such 
colloquial expressions as around here , up there , down there. 


iQue hay de nuevo por alia? 

Hace mucho tiempo que no viene 
nadie d o. por alia. 

Nosotros iremos por alia a verlos 
la semana entrante. 

Venga por aca manana, para que 
hablemos de ese asunto. 

Por aca no ha ocurrido nada 
digno de mencionarse. 

Hace tiempo que no veo a su 
amigo por aca. 


What is new around there? 

Nobody has come from down 
there in a long time. 

We shall come {literally , go over 
there) to see you next week. 

Come around tomorrow, that we 
may talk about that affair. 

Nothing worth mentioning has 
occurred here ( or , the colloquial , 
down here). 

I have not seen your friend here¬ 
about {or, around here) in a 
long time. 


In expressions like these, aca and aqid are interchangeable. 


Venga por aqui manana.— Por aqui no ha occurrido nada. —Hace 
tiempo que no veo a su amigo por aqui. 

40. The phrases just referred to should not be con¬ 
founded with others of the same form in which por means 
through. 





24 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


25 


El reo se escapo por aqui. 
Encontramos una ventana abierta 
y entramos por alii. 

Vengan ustedes por aqici (or, por 
aca). 


The culprit escaped through here. 

We found a window open, and 
went in through it ( literally, 
through there). 

Come this way ( literally , through 
here). 


41. Por alii.— This is a familiar indefinite phrase mean¬ 
ing somewhere, somewhere around; and, with some verbs of 
motion, about. 


Donde esta su primo? — Esta por 
ahi afuera. 

Ponga ese libro por ahi. 

iSabe usted donde esta mi libro 
de cheques? —Yo lo dej b porahi 
en mi cuarto, pero no recuerdo 
donde. 

Francisco Marquez anda por ahi 
diciendo que usted no le quiere 
pagar lo que le debe. 


Where is your cousin? —He is out 
somewhere. 

Put this book there somewhere. 

Do you know where my check¬ 
book is? —I left it somewhere in 
my room, but I do not remem¬ 
ber where. 

Francis Marquez is going about 
saying that you won’t pay what 
you owe him. 


42. Aca and Alla Modified by Adverbs of Quantity. 
When modified by adverbs of quantity, aca and allci denote 
distance from the speaker, and may be rendered by near and 
far , respectively. 


mas aca; mas alia 
muy aca; muy alia 
no tan aca; no tan alia 


nearer, nearer this way; farther, 
farther away 

very near toward this place; very 
far away 

not so near this way; not so far 
away 


43. ‘ Mds aca de and mas alia de mean, respectively, this 
side of and the other side of, beyond. 


Nos encontramos mds aca de Ve¬ 
racruz y nos separamos mds 
alia de Mejico. 

“Mds alia de las islas Filipinas.” 


We met this side of Vera Cruz, 
and separated beyond Mexico 
{or, after passing Mexico). 
“Beyond the Philippine Isles.” 


44. De . . . aca. — This expression, applied to time, 
with an adverb or adverbial phrase of time between de and 






§25 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


25 


acd, is equivalent to since. The preposition dcsde may be 
substituted for de. 

tie cuando aca; lie ayer aea; since when; since yesterday; since 
desde entunces aea then 


ACASO 

45. Aeaso, forsooth. — This adverb properly means per¬ 
haps, but is almost exclusively restricted to interrogative 
sentences with implied negation; that is, it serves to negative 
what is presented in the form of a question. It may some¬ 
times be rendered by such ironic words and phrases as pray , 
forsooth , / should like to know; but in the majority of cases 
it is to be treated as an expletive or emphatic word, which 
need not be translated. 


lAcaso soy yo responsable de la 
negligencia de mis empleados? 
gAcaso el dinero vale mas que la 
edueacion? 

iY puede usted acaso impedir 
nuestro matrimonio? 

46. Si aeaso, in case. 

Si acaso alguien preguntare por 
mi, diga que pronto volvere. 
Si acaso yo no estuviere aqui a 
las cuatro, mandeme llamar. 


Am I, forsooth, responsible for the 
negligence of my employes? 

Is money worth more than edu¬ 
cation, I should like to know? 

And can you prevent our mar¬ 
riage, pray? 


Should ( or , In case) any one ask 
for me, say I shall soon return. 
Should I not be (or, In case I am 
not) here at four, send for me. 


47. The phrase por si acaso followed by a verb and 
preceded by another indicates that the action denoted by the 
latter verb is done to provide for the possible performance 
or occurrence of what is denoted by the former verb. 


Aqui hay unas cartas para su tio Here are some letters for your 
Carlos. Echeselas al bolsillo, uncle Charles. Put them in 
por si acaso lo ve. your pocket, in case you should 

see him. 

The same phrase is used ellipticallv, such phrases as es 
necesario, it be necessary; se neeesita, it be needed , and the 
like being understood after it. 





26 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§25 


No creo que llueva esta noche, 
pero llevese este paraguas, por 
si acaso (that is, por si acaso 
ll-ueve, or, por si acaso lo ne- 
cesita). 

El sacerdote llego cuando el en- 
fermo parecia muerto; sin em¬ 
bargo, le echo la bendicion, por 
si acaso. 


I do not think it will rain tonight, 
but take this umbrella with 
you, in case you may need it. 

The priest arrived when the 
patient seemed to be dead; 
however, he gave him his ben¬ 
ediction, in case he might be 
alive. 


AI.GO 

48. Algo, a little, rather , somewhat: adverb. 


Estoy algo cansado. 

El precio me parece algo subido. 
El tren llego algo tarde, aunque 
no tan tarde como esperhbamos. 

^Habla usted espanol? —Lo hablo 
algo, pero no muy bien. 


I am somewhat tired. 

The price seems to me a little high. 

The train arrived rather late, al¬ 
though not so late as we ex¬ 
pected. 

Do you speak Spanish? —I speak 
it a little, but not very well. 


49. Algo tie, a little, sojne: adjectival phrase. 


Tengo algo de dinero, pero no lo | I have a little money, but not 
suficiente. enough. 

Hablo algo de espanol. I speak a little Spanish. 


If the substantive is not expressed, de is not used. 


I Tiene usted dinero ? — Tengo algo. 


Have you any money? —I have 
some. 


50. Algo, something {anything, in questions): neuter 
substantive. When modified by an adjective, it often takes 


the preposition de. 

Aqui debe de haber sucedido 
algo serio. 

Dijo algo que a mi no me gusto. 
^Ha occurrido algo de nuevo? 


Something serious must have hap¬ 
pened here. 

He said something that I did not 
like. 

Has anything new occurred? 








25 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


27 


APENAS 


51. Apenas, only. 

Tenemos apenas dos sirvientes. 
Apenas un palco estaba ocupado. 

52. Apenas, as soon as. 

Apenas descubrimos el fuego, 
tocamos la campana de alarma. 
Vayan a visitar al senor Llorente 
apenas lleguen a Barcelona. 


We have only two servants. 
Only one box was occupied. 


As soon as we discovered the fire, 
we rang the alarm bell. 

Go and call on Mr. Llorente as 
soon as you arrive at Barcelona. 


53. Apenas si, scarcely, hardly. 


Apenas si puedo creer semejante 
cosa. 

Apenas si se puede confiar en un 
hombre tan voluble. 


I can scarcely believe such a 
thing. 

One can scarcely trust so fickle a 
man. 


The si may be omitted, without altering the sense of the 
sentence; but, as this might give rise to ambiguity, it is 
preferable to preserve it. 

Apenas puedo creer semejante cosa. 

Apenas se puede confiar en un hombre tan voluble. 


ASI 

54. Asi, so, thus, the same: modifies a verb, or is used 
conjunctively, but never modifies an adjective. The accusa¬ 
tive lo, which often accompanies a verb modified by asi, 
literally means it, but need not always be translated. In such 
expressions as Asi es, That is so, one of the neuters ello , 
esto, eso is understood as the subject of es. 


El primer artlculo del tratado 
dice asi. 

Asi termino aquella guerra san- 
grienta. 

Asi lo ordeno el presidente. 

Asi lo hare. 


The first article of the treaty reads 
thus. 

Thus ended that bloody war. 

The president ordered it (so). 

I will do so. 






28 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


25 


Asi me lo dijeron ayer. 

<;C6mo esta usted? — Asi asi. 

Asi sera, pero yo no lo creo. 

^No recuerda usted que ayer me 
prometio venir a almorzar con- 
migo hoy? jOh! asi es. 

No pude conseguir un coche, y 
asi tuve que-ir a pie. 

En este barril hay como cien na- 
ranjas podridas, y asi en los 
demas. 

Asi va mi salud que he perdido 
toda esperanza de reponerme. 

Por decirlo asi. 

Si es asi (or, Si ello es asi), acep- 
temos la propuesta de ellos. 


They told me so yesterday. 

How are you? —So so. 

That may be (so), but I do not 
believe it. 

Do you not remember that you 
promised me yesterday to come 
to breakfast with me today? — 
Oh! that is so. 

I could not get a carriage, and so 
I had to go on foot. 

In this barrel there are about one 
hundred rotten oranges, and so 
in the others. 

My health is going so that I have 
lost all hope of recovering. 

So to speak. 

If that is so, let us accept their 
proposition. 


55. When asi means thus, it is in many cases better 
rendered by that way, in that manner, or by some other 


adverbial phrase, which the 
readily suggest. 

Esa palabra no se pronuncia asi. 

Estudie usted despacio y con pa- 
ciencia; asi aprendera bien sus 
lecciones. 

<No se llama usted Lucas? —No, 
senor, no me llamo asi. 

56. Asi, of that kind , like 


character of the sentence will 


That word is not pronounced that 
way. 

Study slowly and patiently; in 
that way you will learn your 
lessons well. 

Is not your name Luke? — No, sir; 
it is not (more literally t I am 
not called thus). 

it. 


El es carpintero, 6 algo asi. 

Me llamo ignorante, estupido y 
otras cosas asi. 


He is a carpenter, or something 
of that sort. 

He called me ignorant, stupid, 
and other names (literally, 
things) of that kind. 


The phrases por ese estilo, por el estilo are employed in the 
same sense. 


Me llamo ignorante, estupido y otras cosas por ese estilo. 





25 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


29 


57. Asi como, so as, or simply as. Here asi is emphatic, 
and may be omitted. 

Asi como son tus pensamientos, As are thy thoughts, so are thy 
asi son tus obras. | works. 


58. Asi como, as well 
and , or simply both. 

Hemos perdido nuestros equi- 
pajes, asi como nuestros boletos. 

Asi Francia como Rusia parecen 
condenar la accion de Alemania. 

Los arados son demasiado pesa- 
dos, asi como complicados. 

59. Asi que, asi es qu 

of tense), so that , and so. 

No recibimos su carta hasta ayer 
por la manana; asi que (or, asi 
fue que) no pudimos enviarle la 
maquinaria por el vapor de hoy. 

La compania no tiene dinero ni 
credito suficiente; asi que (or, 
asi es que) , aun cuando obtenga 
la prorroga de plazo que pide, 
no podra construir el canal. 

60. Asi que, as soon as, t 

Asi que desembarcamos, le pusi- 
mos un cablegrama al doctor 
Canovas. 

Lleve estas cartas al correo asi 
que coma. 


y asi . . . como, both . . . 

We have lost our baggage, as 
well as our tickets. 

Both France and Russia seem to 
condemn Germany’s action. 

The plows are too heavy, as well 
as complicated. 

(with the appropriate change 

We did not receive your letter 
until yesterday morning, and so 
we could not send you the ma¬ 
chinery by' today’s steamer. 

The company has neither money 
nor credit enough; so that, even 
if it obtains the extension of 
time which it asks for, it will 
not be able to build the canal. 

ter, when. 

As soon as we landed we sent a 
cablegram to Doctor Canovas. 

Take these letters to the post office 
after you dine. 


BIEN 

61. Bien, well; often preceded by y or pues, with refer¬ 
ence to a preceding statement. These two conjunctions are 
emphatic, and need not be translated, although in some cases 
y may be rendered by and, and pues by then, both being 
placed after well. 






30 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


25 


Usted toca el piano rauy bien, 
senorita. 

Bien , ique piensa usted hacer? 

Y bien, ^ella que dijo? 

El prometio que nos daria cartas 
de recomendacion, que nos pre- 
sentaria personalmente a los 
hombres mas influyentes de la 
ciudad, y que nos ayudaria en 
cuanto pudiese. Pues bien, de 
todas esas promesas no cumplio 
ninguna; por el contrario, hizo 
lo posible por desacreditar nues- 
tra empresa. 

62. Bien, very, quite. 

Bien rico esta a pesar de su indo- 
lencia. 

Hagalo bien cuidadosamente. 


You play the piano very well, 
miss. 

Well, what do you intend to do? 

Well, and what did she say? 

He promised that he would give 
us letters of recommendation, 
that he would present us per¬ 
sonally to the most influential 
men in the city, and would 
help us in everything he could. 
Well, of all those promises he 
did not keep any; on the con¬ 
trary, he did his best to dis¬ 
credit our enterprise. 


He is quite rich, notwithstanding 
his indolence. 

Do it very carefully. 


63. Bien . . . bien, either . . . or, whether . . . or. 
The second bien may be preceded or replaced by 6. 


Saldremos, bien por el vapor de 
manana, bien (or, b bien ) por 
el del sabado. 

Bien fuese ignorancia, bien fuese 
descuido, el hecho es que todo 
lo echaron a perder. 


We shall leave either by tomor¬ 
row’s steamer or by Saturday’s. 

Whether it was ignorance, or 
whether it was carelessness, the 
fact is that they spoiled every¬ 
thing. 


64. Antes bien, on the contrary. 


No nos ayudaron en nada; antes 
bien, nos trataron con la mayor 
frialdad e indiferencia. 


They did not help us in anything; 
on the contrary, they treated 
us with the utmost coolness and 
indifference. 


65. Bien que, si bien, although. 


Tod os respondieron al llama- 
miento del gobernador; bien que 
(or, si bien ) pocos vinieron 
resueltos a tomar las armas. 


All answered the governor’s call, 
although few came determined 
to take up arms. 


66. Mas bien, rather, somewhat. 







§25 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


31 


El puerto esta mds bien lejos de 
aqui. 

La funcion estuvo mas bien mala. 


The port is rather far from here. 
The performance was rather poor. 


Outside of this idiomatic use, mds bien is employed in its 
primary signification as a comparative phrase equivalent to 
the adverbial comparative mejor, better. 


Usted escribe mucho mds bien (or, 
mejor) que yo. 


You write much better than I do. 


67. No bien, no sooner; as soon as. 


No bien hubimos llegado, cuando 
el alcalde de la poblacion vino 
a vernos. 


No sooner had we arrived, than 
the mayor of the town came to 
see us. 


CASI 

68. Casi, almost. 

Estoy casi dormido. 

Hemos visto casi todos los edi- 
ficios notables de la ciudad. 

69. Casi no, scarcely, hardly. 

Yo casi no lo conozco. I am hardly acquainted with him. 

Nosotros casi no exportamos bici- We export hardly any bicycles, 
cletas. 

70. Casi (followed by a negative word other than no), 
scarcely. 

Casi nunca voy al teatro. 

Casi nadie ha estado aqui hoy. 

Casi nada hemos sabido de 
Guatemala. 


I scarcely ever go to the theater. 
Hardly anybody has been here 
today. 

We have heard hardly anything 
from Guatemala. 


I am almost asleep. 

We have seen almost all the noted 
buildings in the city. 


In these, as in other similar negative sentences, the nega¬ 
tive word may be placed after the verb, in which case the 
latter should be preceded by no. 

No voy al teatro casi nunca. 

Hoy no ha estado aqui casi nadie. 

No hemos sabido casi nada de Guatemala. 









32 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


25 


COMO 

71. This relative adverb generally means either as (so, 
in negative comparative sentences) or like. It should be 
observed that although like is a preposition, its equivalent 
como is treated as an adverb, and should therefore be fol¬ 
lowed by the nominative instead of the prepositional case of 
pronouns. (See also Art. 28.) The use of this adverb in 
comparisons has already been explained. 


Yo he venido aqui como ciuda- 
dano, no como presidente. 

Como no teniamos viveres, tuvi- 
mos que entregarnos. 

El vencedor no hizo Augusto 
lo que habia prometido como 
Octavio. 

Pobre como soy, no quiero en- 
riquecerme por medios tan 
vergonzosos. 

El, como yo (not , mi), es abo- 
gado. 

Los barbaros cayeron sobre Roma 
como bestias feroces. 


I have come here as a citizen, not 
as president. 

As we had no provisions, we had 
to surrender. 

The victor did not do as Augus¬ 
tus what he had promised as 
Octavius. 

Poor as 1 am, I do not wish to 
enrich myself by means so dis¬ 
graceful. 

He, like me, is a lawyer. 

The barbarians fell upon Rome 
like wild beasts. 


The reason why como is treated as an adverb in sentences 
like the last two, is that such sentences are considered as 


elliptical. 

El es, como yo soy, abogado. 

Los barbaros cayeron sobre Roma, 
pomo caen (sobre algo) las 
bestias feroces. 

72. When como has for its 
manner, it is equivalent to in 


He is, as I am, a lawyer. 

The barbarians fell upon Rome, 
as wild beasts fall (upon some¬ 
thing). 

antecedent a phrase indicating 
which. 


Me sorprendio el modo como 
nos trataron los indios. 

El exito depende de la manera 
como usted conduzca las nego- 
ciaciones. 


The manner in which the Indians 
treated us surprised me. 

The success depends on the man¬ 
ner in which you conduct the 
negotiations. 





§25 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


33 


73. Como, about, more or less. 


It is about four o’clock. 


Habia conw quinientas personas There were about five hundred 

persons in church. 


Son como las cuatro. 
tabia como qi 
en la iglesia. 

74. Como, as if, looking. 

Mi padre entro como disgustado. My father came in as if annoyed. 

75. Como, as soon as, as (comparatively rare). 


Como terminamos la cena, nos 
acostamos. 

76. Como, if. 


As soon as we finished supper, we 
went to bed. 


Como sigas botando tu dinero, tu If you go on squandering your 
padre te retirara tu mensua- money, your father will with- 


lidad. 


draw your monthly allowance. 


77. Como, how, in the sense of that. 


Nos dijo como lo habian sacado de 
su casa y arrastrado a la 
prision, y como el mismo pre- 
fecto del departamento habia 
presenciado el tormento a que 
se le sometio. 


He told us how they had taken 
him out of his house and 
dragged him to the prison, and 
how the prefect of the depart¬ 
ment himself had witnessed the 
torture to which he was sub¬ 
jected. 


78. Como que, seemingly, apparently. This phrase 
serves to express conjecture, supposition, or inference, usually 
founded on appearances or hearsay. It is always followed 
by a verb, and is better rendered by a form of to seem or 
to look used impersonally. 


Usted como que esta cansado. 

Don Pascual como que salio. 

Aqui como que no hay buenos 
paseos. 

El tratado como que se firmo ayer. 


: It seems that you are tired. 

It seems that Mr. Pascual went 
out. 

It seems that there are no good 
promenades here. 

It seems {or, I think) that the 
treaty was signed yesterday. 





34 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§25 


79. Como que, as, since. 

I am sure of it, since I saw it {or, 
having seen it) with my own 
eyes. 

80. Como (with an accent mark over the o), how: both 
interrogative and exclamatory. It can modify only a verb, 
never an adjective or another adverb. It is used in both 
direct and indirect questions and exclamations. 


Estoy seguro de ello, como que lo 
vi con mis propios ojos. 


&Como esta usted hoy? 

No sabiamos como principiar. 
/Como han cambiado los tiempos! 


How are you today? 

We did not know how to begin 
How times have changed! 


81. Como no, how can one help (literally, how not ); 
and, used by itself as an answer, of course, certainly. 


£Como «e>*aplaudir una conducta 
tan desinteresada? 
dPuedes prestarme veinte pesos 
hasta manana? — Como no, Juan- 
cho. 


How can one help applauding so 
disinterested a conduct? 

Can you lend me twenty dollars 
until tomorrow? — Certainly, 
Johnnie. 


CUAiNDO 

82. Cuando as a Relative.—As a relative, cuando is 
the equivalent of when. It may have an adverb of time as 
its antecedent, but is generally employed without any 
expressed antecedent, such phrases as el dia, the day , el 
tiempo, the time, and the like being understood before it. 
If, however, these phrases are expressed, and the proposi¬ 
tion that follows is restrictive, en que, in which, should be 
employed instead of cuando; it is not customary, although it 
would not be incorrect, to use this adverb in restrictive 
propositions with an expressed substantive phrase as its 
antecedent. After prepositions (except para, for ),- que is 
preferred to cuando. 


Entonces, cuando haydis sentido 
los efectos de la tirania, empe- 
zareis d comprender las ben- 
diciones de la libertad. 


Then, when you have felt the 
effects of tyranny, you will 
begin to understand the bless¬ 
ings of liberty. 







25 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


35 


Sampson no estaba en Santiago 
cuando el combate principio. 

En aquellos dias, cuando la 
esclavitud era reconocida como 
nna institucion legitima, tanto 
moral como legalmente, el co- 
mercio de negros era muy lucra¬ 
tive . (Coordmating proposition .) 

El dta en ([tie se firmo el decreto 
de emancipacion fue uno de los 
mas gloriosos de esta gran 
republica. (Restrictive proposi¬ 
tion .) 

Es preciso que nos preparemos 
para cuando nos llamen a 
declarar. 

La ciudad habia decaido mucho 
desde que la capital se habia 
trasladado a Constantinopla. 

83. Cuando, since. 

Elio debe de ser asi, cuando usted 
lo dice. 


Sampson was not at Santiago 
when the battle began. 

In those days, when slavery was 
recognized as a legitimate insti¬ 
tution, both morally and legally, 
dealing in negroes was very 
lucrative. 

The day when the act of emanci¬ 
pation was signed was one of 
the most glorious of this great 
republic. 

It is necessary that we prepare 
ourselves for the time when we 
are called to testify. 

The city had declined a great deal 
since the capital had been trans¬ 
ferred to Constantinople. 


That must be so, since you say it. 


84. Cuando, at the time of , during. 


Eso sucedio cuando la guerra de 
secesion. 

Yo estuve alii cuando el hambre. 


That happened during the seces¬ 
sion war. 

I was there at the time of the 
famine. 


85. Cuando, even if , or simply if. 


Lo haria por placer, cuando no 
tuviese que hacerlo por obliga- 
cion. 

86. Cuando mas, cuando 
cuando menos, at least. 

Tendra cien mil pesos cuando 
mas (or, cuando mucho). 

De aqui al rio Chagres hay dos 
kilometros cuando menos. 


I would do it for pleasure, even if 
I did not have to do it from 
duty. 

mucho, at most , at the most; 


He may have one hundred thou¬ 
sand dollars at the most. 

From here to the Chagres river it 
is two kilometers at least. 







36 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


25 


87. Cuando, when: interrogative and exclamatory; dis¬ 
tinguished from the relative by the accent mark; it cannot 
be replaced by qiie after prepositions. 


4Cuando estara listo mi ter no? 

$Desde cuando estdn ustedes 
aqui? 

[Pobre hijo mio! / cuando le vol- 
vere a ver! 


When will my suit (of clothes) be 
ready? 

Since when are you here? 

My poor son! when shall I see 
him again! 


88. The exclamatory cuando is often used emphatically 
in the sense of jamas, never. 


,:Aceptar nosotros un tratado tan 
humillante? /Cuando! 

/Cuando hubieramos creido que 
tu nos enganabas! 


We to accept so humiliating a 
treaty? Never! 

We should never have believed 
that thou wert deceiving us! 


CUANTO 

89. Cuanto mas, much more; cuanto menos, much 
less. 


Todo hombre debe tratar a los 
demas con cortesia; cuanto mas 
a aquellos a quienes grandes 
virtudes y conocimientos hacen 
dignos de especial respeto. 

Este problema no pudo resolverlo 
ni Newton; cuanto menos un 
joven que apenas sabe los rudi- 
mentos de algebra y geometria. 


Every man must treat others with 
courtesy; much more those 
whom great virtues and knowl¬ 
edge make worthy of special 
respect. 

Not even Newton could solve this 
problem; much less a young 
man who knows only the rudi¬ 
ments of algebra and geometry. 


Sometimes, cuanto mas is used as a synonym of cuanto 
menos. 


Este problema no pudo resolverlo Newton; cuanto mas un joven 
que apenas sabe los rudimentos de dlgebra y geometria. 

90. T5n cuanto, as soon as. 

Envieme el sobretodo en cuanto Send me the overcoat as soon as 
lo termine. you finish it. 







25 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


37 


91. Eli cuanto a, as to, as for , with regard to. 

En cuanto a sueldo, ese es un As for salary, that is a matter 
asunto que usted debe arreglar that you must settle with the 
con el administrador personal- manager personally, 

mente. 

92. For cuanto, poi* cuanto que, inasmuch as. 

Por cuanto solo una de las partes Inasmuch as only one of the con- 
contratantes ha firmado la tracting parties has signed the 

escritura, esta no es legalmente deed, the latter is not legally 

valida. valid. 


93. Cuanto, Interrogative anti Exclamatory.—The 
interrogative adjectives C7ianto,-a, cuantos,-as (which may 
likewise be employed exclamatorily) were treated in Part 6. 
With reference to time, cuanto tiempo, how long (literally, 
how much time ) may be replaced by cudnto; and, with refer¬ 
ence to distance, cuanta distancia, how far (literally, how 
much distance) may be similarly replaced. 


ICuanto hace que usted esta nego- 
ciando en cueros? 

&Cuanto hay de aqui a San Juan? 

94. As a neuter, cudnto 
things. 

gCua?ito vale este sombrero? 

No tiene usted idea cudnto hemos 
visto en estos ultimos dias. 


How long have you been dealing 
in hides? 

How far is it from here to San 
Juan? 

means how much , how many 


How much is this hat worth? 

You have no idea how much we 
have seen these last days. 


95. As an exclamatory adverb, cudnto is apocopated to 
cudn when it immediately precedes an adjective or another 
adverb. It is then rendered by how. 


/Cudn corta es la existencia del 
hombre! 

/Cudn pocos son los hombres que 
merecen ser llamados grandes! 


How short is man’s existence! 

How few are the men that de¬ 
serve to be called great! 




38 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§25 


No tiene usted idea cudn dificil 
nos ha sido viajar en este pais. 

Ya verd usted cudn facilmente 
aprendera nuestra lengua. 


You have no idea how difficult it 
has been for us to travel in this 
country. 

You shall see how easily you will 
learn our language. 


In elevated style, especially in poetry, cudnto may be 
separated from the adjective or adverb it modifies, and then 
it is not apocopated. 

i Cudnto es corta la existencia del hombre! 


96. When cudnto modifies a verb, it is rendered by how 
much , and is never apocopated. 


/Cudnto habla, y cuan poco dice! 

No puede usted imaginarse cudnto 
sufrio nuestro buen padre. 


How much he talks, and how 
little he says! 

You cannot imagine how much 
our good father suffered. 


Note. —For other important uses of cuanto, see Arts. 30 and 
following. 


DONDE 

97. Donde, Relative Adverb.—This adverb means 
where. When it modifies a verb not denoting motion, it may 
be used by itself or preceded by the preposition en, in. 
With a verb of motion, it is usually preceded by a, to , or 
de, from. As the object of a preposition, it may sometimes 
be rendered by that or which. The phrase d donde may be 
replaced by the single word adonde. Like other relatives, 
donde often includes its antecedent, meaning then where , in 
the sense of the place where. 


Este es el lugar donde lo vl la ul¬ 
tima vez. 

La barberla de Castro, a donde 
(or, adonde ) lo lleve anoche, es 
la mejor de la poblacion. 

Aquel es el hotel en donde vivimos 
el ano pasado. 

Donde falta la libertad, el pro- 
greso, si lo hay, marcha a 
pasos lentos. 


This is the place where I saw him 
the last time. 

Castro’s barber shop, where I 
took you last night, is the best 
in town. 

That is the hotel where we lived 
last year. 

Where liberty is wanting, prog¬ 
ress, if there is any, is slow 
(, literally , goes by slow steps). 






§25 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


39 


La casa de donde usted viene fue 
la primera casa de ladrillo que 
se construyo en esta aldea. 

La puerta por donde entramos era 
baja y estrecha. 

A1 fin llegamos a la cumbre del 
cerro, desde donde alcanzamos 
a ver el lago Titicaca. 


The house that you come from 
was the first brick house built 
in this village. 

The door through which we en¬ 
tered was low and narrow. 

At last we arrived at the summit 
of the hill, from which we could 
descry Lake Titicaca. 


98. Donde, Interrogative. — This adverb is the equiv¬ 
alent of the interrogative English where. What was said of 


prepositions, with regard to 
the interrogative as well. 

4 Donde vive usted? 

4 A donde (or, 4 Adonde) va usted? 
4 De donde venia usted esta ma- 
fiana? 

4 E 11 donde (or, 4 Donde ) esta el 
mozo que sirve en esta mesa? 
4 Por donde entraron los ladrones? 


the relative do?ide, applies to 


Where do you live? 

Where are you going (to)? 

Where were you coming from this 
morning? 

Where is the waiter that serves at 
this table? 

Which way ( literally , Through 
where) did the burglars go in? 


99. Important Remark on Relative Adverbs.— An 
adverbial antecedent should be followed by one of the rela¬ 
tive adverbs co/no , cuando, donde as its correlative, and 
never by que , unless the latter is the object of a preposition. 
This rule should be very carefully borne in mind in transla¬ 
ting sentences, mainly impersonal, in which that has an 
adverb or adverbial phrase as its antecedent. 


Aqui fue donde la vi por pri¬ 
mera vez. 

Es en este lugar donde el desea 
edificar. 

Entonces fue cuando Lincoln 
resolvio organizar un ejercito de 
cien mil hombres. 

A si fue como perdimos la clien- 
tela de esas dos casas. 


It was here that I saw her for the 
first time. 

It is in this place that he wishes 
to build. 

It was then that Lincoln resolved 
to organize an army of one 
hundred thousand men. 

That was how ( literally , Thus it 
was that) we lost the custom of 
those two firms. 




40 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§25 


JAMAS, NUNC A 

Note. — These two adverbs are synonymous in all cases, and there¬ 
fore what is here said of jamas applies to nunca as well. 

100. Jamas in Direct Negative Sentences.—As a 
direct negative, jamas means never , or not ever. It may be 
placed either before or after the verb: if placed after, the 
verb should be preceded by no; if placed before, no should 
not be employed. 

I have never been in Guayaquil. 

I had never been cheated in so 
barefaced a way. 


Jamas he estado en Guayaquil. 1 
No he estado jamas en Gua- > 
yaquil. J 

A mi jamas me habian enganado 
tan descaradamente. 

A mi no me habian enganado 
jamas tan descaradamente. 


101. Jamas, ever. — In sentences which, although having 
an affirmative or an interrogative form, are intended as 
indirect negations, jamas is equivalent to ever. 


Me parece improbable que Irlanda 
llegue jamas a ser un pais in- 
dependiente. 

Es imposible que, sin estudiar, 
pueda usted aprender jamas el 
espanol. 

iQuien ha visto jamas semejante 
cosa? 

102. When ever is used 
at any time , or on any occas 
negation in the question, it is 

ffia estado usted alguna vez en 
Valparaiso? 

,;Habeis oido alguna vez hablar 
de ese hombre? 


I think it unlikely that Ireland 
will ever become an independ¬ 
ent country. 

It is impossible that, without 
studying, you can ever learn 
Spanish. 

Who has ever seen such a thing? 

in a question in the sense of 
ion, and there is no indirect 
rendered by alguna vez. 

Have you ever been in Val¬ 
paraiso? 

Have you ever heard of that man? 


103. In comparative and superlative expressions, ever 
may be rendered by jamas or nunca; but the latter is much 
more common. 






25 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


41 


Los negocios estan ahora peor Business is now worse than ever. 

que nunca. 

104. The combination nunca jamds is an emphatic 
expression of negation, equivalent to, although stronger 
than, either of these adverbs used alone. The phrase por 
siempre jamas means for ever and ever. 

Note. —For the use of jamds with casi, see Art. 70. 


MAS, MENOS 

Note. —The main uses of these adverbs in comparative phrases 
have already been explained. 


105. Mas, longer (time); menos, sho7'ter (time). In 
superlative phrases, these two adverbs, when applied to 
time, mean longest and shortest , respectively. 


No se demore mas. 

Mi hermano permanecio en Nueva- 
York mas que en Chicago, y 
en Washington menos que en 
Nueva-York. 

Don Juan fue el que mas vivio 
aqui. 

The phrases mas tiempo, 
shorter time , are equivalent to 


Do not tarry any longer. 

My brother remained in New 
York longer than in Chicago, 
and in Washington a shorter 
time than in New York. 

Mr. John was the one who lived 
here the longest. v 

longer time; menos tiempo, 
mas and ?nenos, respectively. 


No se demore mas tiempo. 

Mi hermano permanecio en Washington menos tiempo que en 
Nueva-York. 

Don Juan fue el que mas tiempo vivid aqui. 


106. Mas, better , best: before some participles. 


Yo soy mas conocido en Chile 
que en el Peru. 


I am better known in Chile than 
in Peru. 


107. A lo mas, at the most; a lo menos, at least. 
These expressions have the same meanings, respectively, as 
cuando mds and cziando menos (Art. 86). Al menos and 
Por lo ?ne?ios may be substituted for a lo menos. 





42 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§25 


108. De mas, too many; tie menos, too few. 


Me ha dado usted tres pesos de 
mas. 

Aqui hay cuatro sillas de menos. 


You have given me three dollars 
too many (or, too much). 

There are four chairs too few here 
(or^ Four more chairs are 
wanted here). 


109. A cual mas, vyingly; an emphatic expression 
indicating that, among several things compared, it is difficult 
to tell which excels in the attribute denoted by the word 
modified by the expression in question. In most cases it 
has to be translated very freely. 


Los indios echaron a correr, a 
cual mas precipitadamente. 

Acabo de comprar dos caballos, 
a cual mas hermoso. 


The Indians started to run, each 
seeming to vie with the others 
in precipitance. 

I have just bought two horses, 
both as handsome as could be 
(more literally, each rivaling 
the other in handsomeness). 


110. Por mas que, however much, however many, or, 
no matter how much, no matter how many. 


Nunca obtendra usted ese empleo, ^ 
por mas que trate. 

No creo que lo admitan en la I 
buena sociedad, por mas rico 
que sea. 

Por mas amigos que usted tenga I 
en el congreso, no creo que 
consiga lo que espera. 

111. A menos que, tinless. 

Iremos a comer al hotel Ingla- \ 
terra, a menos que usted pre- 
fiera otro. 


You will never obtain that em¬ 
ployment, however much you 
may try. 

I do not think they will admit him 
in good society, no matter how 
rich he may be. 

However (or, No matter how) 
many friends you may have in 
Congress, I do not think you 
will obtain what you expect. 


We shall go to dine at the Hotel 
England, unless you prefer an¬ 
other. 


112. Poco mas 6 menos, more or less, about (literally, 
little mot'e or less). The expression mas 6 menos is used in the 


same sense. 






§25 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


43 


Perdimos veinte mil pesos, poco 
mas 6 menos. 

Cuando reeibi su telegrama eran 
las diez y media, poco mas 6 
menos. 


We lost twenty thousand dollars, 
more or less. 

When I received your telegram, 
it was about half past ten. 


MISMO 

113. Mismo With Demonstrative Adverbs.—This 
word is added to some demonstrative adverbs, and may be 
rendered by just or right; or the demonstrative adverb modi¬ 
fied by it may be translated by a demonstrative adjective and 
a substantive, in which case mismo is equivalent to very. 


aqui mismo; alii mismo 
hoy mismo; ahora mismo 

114. Por eso mismo, 

reason , that is just why. 

General, las fuerzas del enemigo 
son muy superiores a las nues- 
tras.— Por eso mismo (or, Por to 
mismo') debemos hacer lo posi- 
ble por vencerlas, pues seme- 
jante victoria nos daria gran 
prestigio. 


right here (in this very place); 

right there (at that very place) 
just today (this very day); just 
now (this very moment) 

por lo mismo, for that very 

General, the enemy’s forces are 
far superior to ours. —For that 
very reason we should do our 
best to defeat them, for such a 
victory would give us great 
prestige. 


MTJCHO, MUY 

115. Muy.—This word is always an adverb; it can 
modify adjectives or other adverbs, but never a verbal time 
form. It should always precede the word it modifies. 
When it modifies a participle, it is rendered by much; in all 
other cases, by very. It should be particularly noticed that 
mucho, literal equivalent of much , cannot be the modifier of 
an expressed participle. 


La botica esta muy lejos de aqui. 


The drug store is very far from 
here. 

This gentleman is very kind. 


Este caballero es muy bondadoso. 








44 SPANISH GRAMMAR §25 


El superintendente es muy que- 
rido de sus empleados. 

El Japon es una nacion muy 
civilizada. 

La senorita Virginia esta muy 
ofendida. 


The superintendent is much loved 
by his employes. 

Japan is a much civilized nation. 
Miss Virginia is much offended. 


116. The phrase very much, before a participle, is 
rendered either simply by muy, or by the superlative ending 
- isimo , added to the participle. 


La senorita Virginia esta ofendi- Miss Virginia is very much 
disima. | offended. 

117. With para as its correlative, muy is often equiva¬ 
lent to too. 


Tengo muy poco dinero para em- 
prender ese negocio. 

Estoy muy cansado para terminar 
estas cartas. 


I have too little money to under¬ 
take that business. 

I am too tired to finish these 
letters. 


118. Mucho, Adverb.—As an adverb, mucho is used: 
1. Instead of muy, when the modified adjective or adverb 
is not expressed: it is then rendered by very. 


^Esta usted cansada, senorita? — 
No mucho. 

Wi ve usted muy lejos de aqui? — 
Si, senor, mucho. 


Are you tired, miss? —Not very. 

Do you live very far from here? — 
Yes, sir; very. 


2. As a modifier of a verb: it is then rendered by much. 


Ese hombre habla mucho. That man talks much. 

Hoy hemos caminado mucho. We have walked much today. 

The expressions of intensification very much, a good deal, are 
properly rendered by much isimo, the combination muy mucho 
not being now in use. It should be observed, however, that, 
in conversation at least, English-speaking people seem to 
have a dislike for the use of much by itself as an adverb, 
and that, in the majority of cases, they employ very much, a 
good deal, a great deal in its place. These phrases, when used 
in this loose manner, should be rendered by mucho. 






25 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


45 


Deseo mucho ver el museo de 
antigiiedades americanas. 

Deseo muchisimo ver a mi madre, 
a quien hace dos anos que no 
veo. 


I much wish to see the museum 
of American antiquities. 

I wish very much to see my 
mother, whom I have not seen 
in two years. 


In the first of these two examples, most people would say 
very much instead of much , even if they did not really wish 
to express a more earnest desire than is expressed by much 
alone. 

3. To modify a comparative word or phrase, for which 
purpose tnuy should never be used. 


Mi tienda es mucho mas grande 
que la de usted, pero muclio 
men os convenientemente situada. 

El es muclio mayor que yo. 

La losa hecha aqui es muclio 
mejor que la importada. 


My store is much larger than 
yours, but much less conve¬ 
niently located. 

He is much older than I. 

The china made here is much 
better than imported china. 


119. Mucho,-a, much; muclios,-as, many: adjectives. 
The first of these two adjectives refers to unmeasured quan¬ 
tity; the second, to number. They are intensified by the 
endings -isimo,-a, isimos,-as; muchisimo,-a, being equivalent 
to a great deal of, and muchisimos,-as, to a great many. As 
in the case of the adverb much, however, these two English 
phrases are often employed as synonyms of much and many, 
respectively, and then they should be rendered simply by 
mucho, -a, muchos,-as. 


Esto me ha costado mucho dinero. 

Ultimamente ha habido mucha fie- 
bre amarilla en Puerto-Limon. 

El cultivo del cafe tiene muchas 
y muy grandes ventajas, aun- 
que requiere muchos gastos. 

En Londres hay muchos mas men- 
digos que en Madrid. 

Le he escrito muchtsimas veces, 
pero no me ha contestado. 


This has cost me much money. 

There has been much yellow fever 
in Puerto Limon lately. 

The raising of coffee has many 
and very great advantages, al¬ 
though it requires many ex¬ 
penses. 

There are many more beggars in 
London than in Madrid. 

I have written to him a great 
many times, but he has not 
answered me. 





46 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


25 


Nosotros tenemos muchisimos mas 
estudiantes que cualquiera de 
los otros colegios. 


We have a great many more stu¬ 
dents than any of the other 
colleges. 


120. Mucho, much, a great deal, many things: neuter 
substantive. 


Este mes hemos vendido mucho. 

En la Florida vi mucho que me 
llamo la atencidn. 


We have sold a great deal this 
month. 

I saw much in Florida that at¬ 
tracted my attention. 


NAI)A 

121. General Rule for the Order of Negatives. 
When a negative word other than no is placed after a verb, 
the latter should be preceded by no; otherwise, 7io is dis¬ 
pensed with. (See Art. 100, and also Part 4, Indefinite 
Pronouns.) 

122. Natla, ?iot at all: adverb. 


I Habla usted espanol? —No, senor, 
no lo hablo nada. 

Estas flores no me parecen nada 
bonitas. 

Yo no vivo nada lejos de aqui. 


Do you speak Spanish? —No, sir; 

I do not speak it at all. 

These flowers do not seem to me 
at all pretty. 

I do not live far from here at all. 


123. Nada de, no . . . at all, or simply ?io: adjectival 
phrase modifying a singular substantive. 


En esta lampara no hay nada de 
aceite. 

La casa de Camacho y Pierola no 
tiene nada de credito. 


There is no oil at all in this lamp. 

The firm of Camacho and Pierola 
has no credit at all. 


124. Nada, 7iothi7ig, ajiything: neuter substantive. 


El doctor Ramirez me dijo que 
no sabia nada sobre el parti¬ 
cular. 

El doctor Ramirez me dijo que 
tiada sabia sobre el particular.. 


Doctor Ramirez told me he did 
not know anything about the 
matter. 









§25 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


47 


Nada nuevo ha ocurrido por' 
aca. 

Por aca no ha ocurrido nada 
nuevo. 

No es probable que recibamos 
nada por este vapor. 


Nothing new has occurred about 
here. 

It is not likely that we shall re¬ 
ceive anything by this steamer. 


125. Nada, anything: neuter substantive used in sen¬ 
tences with implied negation, after other negative words, 
after an infinitive preceded by antes de, before , and in com¬ 
parisons. (See Arts. 101-103.) 


iQuien ha visto nunca nada tan 
ridiculo? 

Es inutil ofrecerles nada, pues 
no lo aceptaran. 

Vivo feliz, sin nada que me 
quite el sosiego. 

Antes de decidir nada, vea al 
ingeniero en jefe. 

Es dificil concebir nada mas 
injusto. 


Who has ever seen anything so 
ridiculous? 

It is useless to offer them an} T - 
thing, for they will not accept it. 

I live happy, without anything to 
deprive me of repose. 

Before deciding anything, see the 
chief engineer. 

It is difficult to conceive anything 
more unjust. 


POCO 

126. Poco, little , not very; with reference to time, 
seldom: adverb. When it modifies an adjective, it is better 


rendered by not very , not much 
but this adverb is not much 
before a participle. 

Anoche dormi poco. 

Epaminondas hablaba poco , pero 
escuchaba mucho. 

Este es un fenomeno que se ob- 
serva solo entre naciones poco 
civilizadas. 

Esta es una invencion curiosa, 
pero poco util. 

Los chinos son poco progresistas. 
Estoy un poco cansado. 


it may be translated by little , 
used in this manner, except 

I slept little last night. 

Epaminodas spoke little, but lis¬ 
tened much. 

This is a phenomenon observed 
only among little-civilized na¬ 
tions. 

This is a curious invention, but 
not very useful. 

The Chinese are not very pro¬ 
gressive. 

I am a little tired. 








48 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§25 


Estamos poco acostumbrados a ; We are not much accustomed to 
viajar en burro. traveling on donkeyback. 

Yo voy poco al teatro. | I seldom go to the theater. 


The difference between un poco and poco is the same as 
that between a little and little; the former being the equiva¬ 
lent of mas bien, rather , somewhat. 

127. Poco,-a, little; pocos,-as, few: both adjectives. 
These adjectives are the opposites, respectively, of mucho,-a, 
and muchos,-as (Art. 19). 


Este joven tiene poco talento,/>c>oji 
aplicacion, y pocos recursos. 

128. Un poco cle, a 

a few , some: adjectival phrases. 

Hagame el favor de darme un 
poco de vino. 

Tenemos unos pocos amigos en 
Maracaibo. 


This young man has little talent, 
little application, and few re¬ 
sources. 

some; unos pocos,-as, 

Please give me a little {or, some) 
wine. 

We have a few friends in Mara¬ 
caibo. 


little , 


The difference between unos pocos and pocos is similar to 
that between un poco and poco: pocos emphasizes the small¬ 
ness of the number of the objects referred to; unos pocos, on 
the contrary, emphasizes the fact that those objects are not 
wanting —that there are some of them. 

129. Poco, little: neuter substantive. 

Quien tiene poco, poco feme per- He who has little does not fear 
derlo. much to lose it. 


Here the first poco is a neuter; the second, an adverb. 


130. A poco, shortly afterwards; a poco de, shortly 
after; poco antes, poco antes de, shortly before. 


El sol habia desaparecido tras una 
nube espesa. A poco empezo a 
llover. 


The sun had disappeared behind 
a heavy cloud. Shortly after¬ 
wards, it began to rain. 






§25 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


49 


A poco de haber recibido su re- 
cado, fui a ver al secretario de 
guerra. 

Yo lo habia visto poco antes. 

El tren salio poco antes de las dos. 

131. Poco mas, hardly 
Honing. 

Poco mas ganamos en ese ne- 
gocio. 

Poco mas hemos sabido del estado 
de cosas en Venezuela. 


Shortly after having received your 
message, I went to see the sec¬ 
retary of war. 

I had seen him shortly before. 

The train left shortly before two 
o’clock. 

anything, nothing worth men- 

We made hardly anything in that 
business. 

We have heard hardly anything 
about the state of things in 
Venezuela. 


SI 

132. This adverb, when employed by itself, is rendered 
by yes. It is also often used, like no, either preceding a verb 
or following a substantive, with the same emphatic value that 


the auxiliaries to do, to be, etc. 

I Usted no habia ingles? —Oh, si, 
senor; si lo hablo. 

Mi hermano no fue al teatro, pero 
yo si fui. A el no le gusta la 
opera; a ml si. 

Le pregunte si lo conocia a usted, 
y me dijo que si. 

Usted no tendra que presentar 
examen; pero su primo si. 


have in English. 

Do you not speak English?—Oh, 
yes, sir; I do speak it. 

My brother did not go to the 
theater, but I did. He does not 
like opera; I do. 

I asked him if he knew you, and 
he said yes (or, he said he did). 

You will not have to pass an ex¬ 
amination; but your cousin will. 


133. The phrase si que is an emphatic expression lit¬ 
erally equivalent to indeed: it generally implies a comparison, 
and indicates that to the word it modifies does indeed apply 
what is stated in the proposition following. 


fiste si que es un hombre de 
energia. 

Ahora si que ha encontrado Es- 
pana quien la haga abandonar 
sus colonias en America. 


This is indeed a man of energy. 

Now indeed is the time when 
Spain has found some one to 
make her give up her colonies 
in America. 






50 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


25 


VEZ 


134. This substantive, which primarily means time, in 
the sense of occasion, serves to form a great many adverbial 
phrases, of which the most common are: 


a veces, 1 

, , ) sometimes 

a las veces, J 

a la vez, at once {at the same time) 
de una vez, now, at once 
de vez en cuando, 
tal cual vez, 
una que otra vez, 
una vez que otra, 
en vez de, instead of 
ninguna vez, not once, never 
rara vez 


now and then, once in a while 


} 

;ces, ) 


raras veces 
tal vez, perhaps 
una vez, once 


seldom, rarely 


135. Ya, already, now. 

Aqui ya hay cuarenta botellas de 
vino, y en la caja no caben 
mas. 

Ya ve usted cuanto hemos hecho 
por usted. 

136. Ya no, no longer. 

Nosotros ya no negociamos en 
granos. 

A mi ya no me gusta fumar. 

137. Ya, immediately, at 
jEster! — Ya voy, mama. 

Aguardeme aqui; ya vuelvo. 

138. Ya que, since. 

Ya que usted insiste, venderemos 
la mina por ese precio. 

Note. —For the use oi ya with i 


There are forty bottles of wine 
here already, and the box does 
not hold any more. 

You see now how much we have 
done for you. 


We no longer deal in grains. 

I no longer like to smoke. 
once, presently. 

Esther! —I am coming at once, 
mama. 

Wait for me here; I shall return 
presently. 

Since you insist, we shall sell the 
mine for that price. 

l verb in the future, see Art. 37. 








25 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


51 


ADVERBIAL, PHRASES 

139. The following are important adverbial phrases: 


acaballo, on horseback (or on any 
other animal's back) 
a ciegas, blindly 
a credito, on credit 
a cuestas, on one's shoulders 
a escape, in haste, quickly 
A escondidas, secretly 
a gatas, on all fours 
a hurtadillas, stealthily 
a la larga, in the long run 
a la ligera, superficially, hurriedly 
a la moda, in fashion 
a las claras, manifestly 
a la verdad, truly 
a la vez, at the same time, at a 
time, at once 
al contado, in cash, cash 
al fiado, on credit 
al fin, finally; in the end 
al momento, at once 
al por mayor,! < wbolesale 
por mayor, J 
al por menor, 
por menor, 
al punto, immediately 
al reves, inside out; top side down; 

the reverse, the opposite 
al vivo, to the life 
a manos llenas, liberally, without 
stint 

a mas no poder, not being able to 
help it 

a mas tardar, at the latest 
a medias, by halves, incompletely 
a menudo, often 

antes de anoche, the night before 
last 

antes de ayer, the day before yes¬ 
terday 

a ojos cerrados, blindly 
A ojos vistas, openly 


a oscuras, in the dark 
a pie, on foot 

a pie juntillas, firmly, up and 
down, insistently 
a porfia, persistently 
a sabiendas, wittingly, knowingly 
a secas, plainly, plain and simple 
a solas, alone, in private 
a tientas, feeling one's way, gro¬ 
pingly 

a trechos, at intervals 
a una, together 
a voces, aloud 

con ligereza, superficially, care¬ 
lessly 

con todo, notwithstanding, how¬ 
ever 

de antemano, beforehand 

de balde, for nothing, gratis 

de buena gana, willingly 

de continuo, continually 

de dia, by day, in the daytime 

de golpe, suddenly, unexpectedly 

de hecho, de facto, truly 

de improviso,- off one's guard 

de mala gana, unwillingly 

de molde, perfectly 

de ningun modo, 1 , 

, . > by no means 

de nmguna manera, J 

de noche, by night, night 

de nuevo, anew 

de oidas, by hearsay 

de par en par, wide open 

de paso, on one's way, in passing 

de prisa, in haste 

de proposito, purposely 

de rodillas, on one's knees 

de seguro, surely 

de suyo, of one's own accord 

de todos modos, by all means; at all 

events; in any (or, either) ease 


| at retail 




52 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


25 


ADVERBIAL PHRASES-(Continued) 


de todo punto, wholly 
de veras, truly, indeed 
de vista, by sight 
en ayunas, agog, uninformed 
en cierto modo, to a certain extent 
en cueros, stark naked 
en el acto, at once 
en fin, finally; well 
en gran manera, in great measure 
en lo sucesivo, hereafter, in future 
en otro tiempo, formerly, once 
en punto, exactly, sharp (said of 
the hour) 

en resumen, in short 
en seguida, at once 

hoy <R a > | nowadays 

hoy en dia,J 


pasado raanana, the day after 
tomorrow 

por consiguiente, consequently 

por lo mas, at most 

por lo menos, at least 

por lo" pronto, for the present 

por lo regular, usually 

por lo tanto,l 

> consequently 
por tanto, J 

por momentos, every moment 
por supuesto, of course 
por ultimo, lastly 
por ventura, peradventure 
sin duda, no doubt, doubtless 
sobre todo, above all, specially 



SPANISH GRAMMAR 

(PART 11) 


THE PREPOSITION 


USES OF A 


A AS A SIGN OF THE ACCUSATIVE 

1. Accusative Denoting Human Beings.— One of 
the most important uses of this preposition is to serve as a 
sign of the accusative, by being placed before substantives 
(the prepositional cases of pronouns included) that perform 
that office. When so employed, it has no meaning by itself; 
it serves no other purpose than that of introducing the 
accusative, and is not to be translated. 

A should, as a rule, precede any accusative denoting one 
or more determinate human beings, and also the interroga¬ 
tive quien , the relative quien, and the indefinite pronouns 
alguien, some o?ie, any one; nadie, no one, etc. whenever 
these words are accusatives. 


Acabo de ver a nuestros amigos. 

Enviare a mi hijo por los papeles 
que usted desea. 

El doctor Uribe euro a la ninita 
del capit&n Jones. 

Un hornbre llamado Booth mato 
a Lincoln. 

(jCree usted probable que elijan 
a Roosevelt f 


I have just seen our friends. 

I will send my son for the papers 
you want. 

Dr. Uribe cured Captain Jones’s 
little girl. 

A man by the name of Booth 
killed Lincoln. 

Do you think it likely they will 
elect Roosevelt? 


For notice of copyright, see page immediately following the title page 

\ 26 






2 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§26 


Parece que este senor lo conoce a 
usted. ^Lo conoce usted a el? 

^Conoce usted a alguien aqul? 

Los detectivos no encontraron a 
nadie en la casa de juego. 

El almirante recibio muy bonda- 
dosamente a los comisionados. 
quibi desean ustedes ver? 


It seems that this gentleman 
knows you. Do you know him? 

Do you know any one here? 

The detectives did not find any¬ 
body in the gambling house. 

The admiral received the com¬ 
missioners very kindly. 

Whom do you wish to see? 


2. In the following examples, a is not used, because the 
accusative is indeterminate: 


No he encontrado amigos en mi 
necesidad. 

Hoy hemos visto mucha gente. 
Hemos enviado varios agentes k 
Chile y al Peru. 

Estamos buscando un agente de 
policia. 

Necesitamos un medico. 


I have found no friends in my 
need. 

We have seen many people today. 
We have sent several agents to 
Chile and Peru. 

We are looking for a policeman. 
We need a physician. 


In the two examples that follow, a is required, because 
the persons denoted by the accusatives are made determin¬ 
ate by qualifying phrases: 


Estoy buscando a un agente de 
policia para quien tengo una 
or den del alcalde. 

Necesitamos a un medico que 
vive aqui. 


I am looking for a policeman 
for whom I have an order 
from the mayor. 

We need a physician that lives 
here. 


3. When que serves as accusative, it is not preceded by d } 
whatever the-character of its antecedent. The accusative 
quien , on the contrary, always takes that preposition (Art. 1). 


El caballero que le presente a 
usted anoche, y a quien usted 
tanto admira, es uno de nues- 
tros mejores actores. 


The gentleman that I introduced 
to you last night, and that you 
so much admire, is one of our 
best actors. 


4. When a common noun denoting an office or employ¬ 
ment follows a verb expressing election or appointment, d is 
not required. 






§26 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


3 


El pueblo elige el presidents , 
y este nombra los prefectos 
de los departamentos. 

“El papa lia creacio dos car- 
den ales.” 

5. The impersonal liabt 
before its accusative. 

Aqui liay muchos comerciantes. 

En esta ciudad no liay quien 
pueda dirigir la construction 
del puente. 

^Hay alguien que quiera llevar 
esta orden al jefe de la caba- 
lleria? 

6. Teller requires d befor 
to hold , but not when it means 

Tenemos un secretario muy in- 
competente. 

Tengan a ese hombre, no sea que 
se escape. 


The people elect the president, 
and the latter appoints the pre¬ 
fects of the departments. 

“The pope has created two car¬ 
dinals.” 

■, there to be , never takes a 

There are many merchants here. 

There is no one in this city that 
can direct the construction of 
the bridge. 

Is there any one who will carry 
this order to the commander of 
the cavalry? 

its accusative when it means 

to have , to possess. 

We have a very incompetent sec¬ 
retary. 

Hold that man, lest he should 
escape. 


7. When querer means to love , it requires a before its 
accusative; when it means to wish , it does not. 


Quiero mi abogado inmediata- 
mente. 

Quiero mucho a mis amigos , 
pero quiero mas a mis hijos. 

8. Perder takes a when it 
means to lose. 

Perclio a sus hijos con su mal 
ejemplo. 

Perdio sns hijos en la batalla de 
Getisburgo. 


I want my lawyer immediately. 

I love my friends very much, but 
I love my children more. 

means to ruin , not when it 

He ruined his sons with his bad 
example. 

He lost his sons in the battle of 
Gettysburg. 


9. When a transitive verb having an accusative denoting 
a human being is followed by a prepositional phrase with a, 
the d before the accusative is omitted, if there is danger of 






4 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§26 


ambiguity. This rule, however, does not apply where the 
accusative is a proper name not preceded by the definite 
article. In the latter case, it is often necessary to vary the 
construction, so as to avoid the obscurity arising from 
the concurrence of the two prepositional phrases with a. 


Prefiero el doctor Pardo al doctor 
Cabezas. 

Envie mi hijo a mi hermana. 
Rojas fue presentado a Espinosa 
por el coronel Estrada. 


I prefer Doctor Pardo to Doctor 
Cabezas. 

I sent my son to my sister. 
Colonel Estrada presented Rojas 
to Espinosa. 


In the last example, it would not be proper to say, render¬ 
ing the English sentence literally, El coronel Estrada presentb 
a Rojas a Espinosa; for, although the accusative generally 
precedes prepositional phrases, which would indicate that 
here Rojas was the accusative, this rule is not absolute, and 
so it might not be clear whether it was intended to state that 
Rojas was presented to Espinosa, or Espinosa to Rojas. 
Besides, the concurrence of the two prepositions forms a 
harsh-sounding combination that should be avoided. In the 
following example, the order of the prepositional phrases 
indicates that Jesus is the accusative: 


“Judas vendio a Jesus a los sa- I “Judas sold Jesus to the priests 
cerdotes y fariseos. ’’ | and Pharisees.” 


As just stated, however, constructions like this, although 
not strictly ungrammatical, are always inelegant, and often 
ambiguous. The last example might be transformed in the 
following or a similar manner: 

Jesus fue vendido por Judas a los I Jesus was sold by Judas to the 
sacerdotes.y fariseos. | priests and Pharisees. 

10. In some cases, d is omitted before the accusative 
when the verb is modified by another prepositional phrase 
with d, even if there is no danger of ambiguity, and simply 
to avoid the unpleasant repetition of the preposition. 

“Convido todos sus amigos a /a I “He invited all his friends to the 
bodaP | wedding.” 



26 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


5 


This practice, however, is not to be commended: the 
employment of the preposition is here preferable to its 
omission, if only for the sake of uniformity, and to avoid a 
useless multiplication of exceptions and special rules. 

11. The names of personified things are treated in all 
respects like those of human beings, and should, therefore, 
when serving as accusatives, take d. This preposition is 
also used with verbs that ordinarily take the names of human 
beings as their accusatives, even when the accusative denotes 
neither a human being nor a personified thing. 


Manfredo, en su desesperacion, 
l lamb a la muerte. 

Obedezcamos a la For tun a, que 
es la reina de la humanidad. 

“ Temta a los extranos, a los pro- 
pios, a su misma sombra: con- 
dicion de tirano.” 

La ninita acariciaba al gato, al 
cual querta muchisimo. 

I Quien no ama a su patria ? 

El rey, en su locura, azotb al 
oceano y maldijo al viento. 


Manfred, in his despair, called 
death. 

Let us obey Fortune, who is man¬ 
kind’s queen. 

“He feared strangers, his own 
people, even his own shadow: 
the condition of a tyrant.” 

The little girl was petting the cat, 
which she loved very much. 

Who does not love his country? 

The king, in his madness, whipped 
the ocean and cursed the wind. 


12. For euphony, d may be omitted before a word begin¬ 
ning with a, provided that word is not a proper name nor 
an indefinite pronoun. The employment of the preposition, 
however, is as proper as its omission. 


<iConoce usted aquella senora? 
Hoy he visto algunos oficiales del 
ejercito invasor. 

I Ha visto usted a alguno hoy? 
iConoce usted a alguien en este 
pueblo? 

Cleopatra perdio a Antonio. 
Llamea Ana inmediatamente. 


Do you know yonder lady? 

I have today seen some officers of 
the invading army. 

Have you seen any one today? 

Do you know any one in this 
town? 

Cleopatra ruined Antony. 

Call Anna immediately. 


13. Accusative Denoting a Geographical Divi¬ 
sion.— The proper name of a city or country, or of any 
other geographical territorial division, if not preceded by 
the definite article, takes d when serving as accusative. 




6 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§26 


Alejandro invadid a Asia y con- 
quisto a Persia. 

El terremoto destruyo a Guate¬ 
mala . 

En aquel ano, los holandeses fun- 
daron a Nueva-York. 

Pizarro conquisto el Peru. 

El ano antepasado visit&mos los 
Estados Unidos. 


Alexander invaded Asia and con¬ 
quered Persia. 

The earthquake destroyed Guate¬ 
mala. 

In that year, the Dutch founded 
New York. 

Pizarro conquered Peru. 

We visited the United States the 
year before last. 


14. It is quite common, especially in describing military 
operations, to omit a before a geographical name that, accord¬ 
ing to the general rule just given, should be preceded by 
that preposition. 


Los franceses ocuparon Madrid. 
Anibal evacuo Capua. 


The French occupied Madrid. 
Hannibal evacuated Capua. 


This practice is not sanctioned by the best authorities, 
nor followed by the best writers. The two sentences just 
given should be replaced by these: 

Los franceses ocuparon a Madrid.—Anibal evacuo a Capua. 

15. Proper geographical nouns preceded by the definite 
article take a when they follow verbs that ordinarily take 
the names of human beings as their accusatives (Art. 11), 
or when they are taken to denote the people of the places 
they name rather than the places themselves. 


Los espanoles no pudieron veneer 
a los Estados Unidos. 

La China no quiere al Japon, ni 
el Japon a la China. 


The Spaniards could not vanquish 
the United States. 

China does not love Japan, nor 
Japan China. 


16. Other Accusatives.—As a rule, when the accusa¬ 
tive of a verb does not belong to any of the classes, or is 
not used in any of the manners, specified in the foregoing 
articles, it does not take d. 


Juan me escribio una carta. 

Aun no hemos vendido los som¬ 
breros que nos llegaron el mes 
pasado. 


John wrote me a letter. 

We have not yet sold the hats 
that we received ( literally , that 
reached us) last month. 






26 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


7 


No podemos pagar esa cuenta. 

Haga el inventario hoy, y envie 
una copia al abogado. 

El cirujano dice que no hay nece- 
sidad de amputarle a listed la 
pierna. 

El toro mato el caballo, y el to¬ 
reador mato el toro. 


We cannot pay that bill. 

Take the inventory today, and 
send a copy to the lawyer. 

The surgeon says that it is not 
necessary to amputate your leg. 

The bull killed the horse, and the 
bull fighter killed the bull. 


The names of animals, however, when preceded by the 
definite article, may take d, if the animals are in any way 
represented as rational beings, or as prompted in their 
actions by intellectual, emotional, or other motives that 
may in any manner be assimilated to man’s mental acts 
and states. Thus, in the last example, where the horse and 
the bull are referred to as engaged in a struggle with each 
other, and the bull as fighting both the horse and the horse¬ 
man, it would be proper to say, 

El toro mato al caballo, y el toreador mato al toro. 

In the following examples, in which no reference is made, 
either directly or indirectly, to the animals’ mental acts 
or states, a would be inadmissible: 


El carnicero acababa de matar | 
el toro. 

El cazador cogio el tigre en una 
trampa. 


The butcher had just killed the 
bull. 

The hunter caught the tiger in a 
snare. 


17. A often serves the purpose of avoiding ambiguity, 
especially after verbs having two accusatives, one of which 
serves as a name of, or is employed to characterize, the other. 


Llamaban libertad a la tirania, Tyranny they called liberty, and 
y consideraban justicia al asesi- murder they considered justice. 
nato. 


Were the a omitted in the first of these two propositions, 
it would not be plain whether the idea to be conveyed was 
that tyranny went by, or usurped, the name of liberty, or 
that liberty went by the name of tyranny. Similarly with 
the second proposition. 






8 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§26 


18. In grammatical language, a precedes the accusative 


of the verbs regir, to govern; 
few others. 

La preposicion rige al caso termi¬ 
nal. 

El adverbio modi fie a al verbo, al 
adjetivo 6 a otro adverbio. 


modificar, to modify , and a 

The preposition governs the prep¬ 
ositional case. 

The adverb modifies the verb, the 
adjective, or another adverb. 


OTHER USES OF A 

19. This preposition, besides being a sign of the accu¬ 
sative in the cases specified in the foregoing articles, is used: 

1. To indicate destination, and also the place, moment, 
or state reached by anything in its motion, or to which the 
thing tends. It is then rendered by to, sometimes by at. 


Manana ire a la ciudad. 

Venga a mi despacho esta noche. 
El sabado que viene llegaremos a 
Buenos-Aires. 


I shall go to the city tomorrow. 
Come to my office this evening. 
We shall arrive at Buenos Ayres 
next Saturday. 


2. To express the dative relation. (See Part 4.) 

3. To relate certain infinitives to the verbs that govern 
them. It is then rendered by to. 


Vamos a comer. 

Aprendamos a nadar. 

Aspira a ser rey. 

La mula comenzo a cocear. 

El sol ejnpezaba a sa/ir. 

(jQuien le enseno a usted a lisar 
tablas de logaritmos? 

Envie a comprar el periodico. 

Nos obligaron a rendirnos. 
iNo quiere salir a pasearf 

Venga a verme manana. 

No me atrevi a decir nada. 
iAun no se han decidido ustedes a 
partir? 

Su amigo se nego a ayudar nos. 


Let us go to dine. 

Let us learn to swim. 

He aspires to be king. 

The mule commenced to kick. 
The sun was beginning to rise. 
Who taught you (how) to use 
logarithmic tables? 

I sent to buy the newspaper. 

They compelled us to surrender. 
Do you not wish to go out to 
walk ? 

Come to see me tomorrow. 

I did not dare say anything. 

Have you not yet decided to 
depart? 

Your friend refused to help us. 


4. To denote time: translated by at, sometimes by on. 






26 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


9 


a, media noche, at midnight a mi regreso, on my return 

a medio dia, at noon al dia siguiente, on the following 

a las seis, at six o'clock day 

5. To denote rate of prices, motion, etc.: rendered by at. 
(See also Part 5, The Definite Article.) 

El carbon se vende ahora a cinco Coal sells now at five dollars a 
pesos la tonelada. ton. 

El vapor va andando a trece mi- The steamer is going at thirteen 
lias por hora. miles per hour. 

Instead of a , the phrase a razon de, at the rate of , may 
be used. 

El carbon se vende ahora a razon de cinco pesos la tonelada. 

El vapor va andando a razon de trece millas por hora. 


The interrogative expressions a como , a como estd, when 
applied to prices, mean, respectively, at liow much (or, at 
zvhat price ), what is the price of. In general, estar a, when it 
refers to prices, is rendered by to be, to sell at. 


^A como vendio usted sus panuelos 
de lino? 

$ A como estd ahora la carne? 

Las letras sobre Nueva-York estan 
al doscientos por ciento. 

El azucar estaba entonces a nueve 
centavos la libra. 


At what price did you sell your 
linen handkerchiefs? 

What is now the price of meat? 

Drafts on New York are now at 
two hundred per cent. 

Sugar sold then at nine cents a 
pound. 


In familiar language, estamos a (literally, we are at) is 
applied to dates in the sense of it is, and $d como estamos? 
(literally, at how much are we?) in the sense of what is the date? 

Hoy estamos a diez. Today is the tenth. 

gA como estuvimos ayer? What day of the month was yes¬ 

terday? 


6. To denote location: rendered by at, sometimes by to. 

El coche nos espera a la puerta. The carriage is waiting for us at 

the door. 

Acababamos de sentarnos a la We had just sat down to the table. 


mesa. 




10 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§26 


This use of & is not very common, location being generally 
indicated by en, in, at, as will be explained in a subsequent 
article. 

7. To denote distance: rendered by at, or not rendered 
at all. 

El buque estaba como d dos leguas 
de la costa. 

&A que distancia de la isla tuvo 
hi gar la batalla? 


The ship was about two leagues 
off the coast. 

At what distance from the island 
did the battle take place? 


As will be observed, como is placed before a in the first 
example. It is a general rule that no word should intervene 
between a preposition and its object. 

8. Preceded by a substantive, and followed by the same 
substantive, to denote distribution, gradualness, or consecu¬ 
tiveness: rendered by by. 

uno a uno, one by one I paso a paso, step by step, slowly 

gota a gota, drop by drop \ poco a poco, little by little 

9. To indicate manner or fashion: rendered by after or in. 
The words manera, manner; mod a, fashion; estilo, style, 
are not expressed, being understood. In these idiomatic 
expressions, the feminine form of the article and of the 
adjective following it should be used. 


a la francesa, after the French 
fashion 

a la antigua, in ancient style , 
after the style of the ancients 


a la italiana, after the Italian 
style 

a la moderna, in new style 


If the words estilo, moda, etc. are expressed, the con¬ 
struction is: 


a la moda francesca; al estilo italiano; al estilo antiguo, etc. 

The phrase a lo, followed by a substantive, indicates 
resemblance in the manner of acting, and may be rendered 
by like or fashion, or in the style of. 




§26 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


11 


Trato de escribir a lo Cervantes , 
y se puso en ridiculo. 

Napoleon queria pasearse por el 
mundo a lo Alejandro. 

Habla a lo orador , 6 mas bien, 
a lo actor. 


He tried to write like a Cervantes, 
and made himself ridiculous. 

Napoleon wished to walk over the 
world, like an Alexander. 

He speaks in an orator-like, or 
rather actor-like, fashion. 


10. To indicate the end of an interval of time: rendered 
by to or until; also, to denote limit: rendered by to. 


Permanecere en mi taller de las 
seis a las ocho. 

Trabaja de la manana a la noche. 

Tenemos de cuatrocientos mil a 
quinientos mil arboles de cafe 
en nuestro cafetal. 

If, however, the beginning 

liasta, until , should be used. 

Permanecere en mi oficina hasta 
las ocho. 


I shall remain in my shop from 
six to eight. 

He works from morning till night. 

We have from four hundred thou¬ 
sand to five hundred thousand 
coffee bushes in our coffee plan¬ 
tation. 

: the interval is not specified, 

I shall remain in my office until 
eight. 


11. Elliptically, in the familiar phrase a que , a form of 
the verb apostar, to bet , being understood before it. 


A que no adivina por cuanto 
vend! los dos relojes. 

A que usted no ha hecho todavia 
la factura de esos articulos. 


Pll bet you can’t guess for how 
much I sold the two watches. 
I’d bet you haven’t yet made the 
invoice for those articles. 


The full forms of these sentences would be: 

Apuesto a que no adivina por cuanto vendi los dos relojes. 
Apuesto (or, Apostaria) a que usted no ha hecho todavia la 
factura de esos articulos. 


20. This preposition is used in a great many adverbial 
and idiomatic phrases which it is impossible to either classify 
or enumerate. The following may serve as examples: 

jugar a los naipes, to play at cards al otro lado, on the other side 
perecer a manos de, to die at al otro dia, 1 on the following 
{ox, by) the.hands of j al dia siguiente, J day 






12 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


26 


ponerse a las ordenes de, to place 
oneself at the service or com¬ 
mand of 

a vista de tierra, in sight of land 
a tiempo, in time 
a bordo de un buque, on board a 
ship 


a la vista, at sight 
a la vista de, on sight of\ on 
seeing 

a diez dias vista, at ten days' 
sight , ten days after sight 
a consecuencia de, in consequence 
of 


Note. —For a list of adverbial phrases with a, see Part 10. 


OTHER PREPOSITIONS* 


1)E 

21. Besides its employment for the formation of adjec¬ 
tival prepositional phrases, which was fully explained in 
Part 5 (The Adjective Substantive), this preposition is used: 
1. To denote possession or appertainance. 


la casa de Juan 
el corresponsal de usted 
las patas traseras del caballo 
las ruedas del coche 
el reloj de la catedral 


John’s house 
your correspondent 
the horse’s hind feet 
the wheels of the carriage 
the cathedral clock 


2. To denote origination, source, starting point, native 
place, place moved from, and the like: usually rendered by 
from. 


Yo soy de Puerto-Rico. 

La quinina se extrae de la cin¬ 
chona. 

&De ddnde viene usted? 

Ayer trabajamos de seis k seis. 

El vapor va de Nueva-York k 
Cartagena en siete dias. 

Se acaba de construir un ferro- 
ca.vr\\de Valparaiso a la frontera 
argentina. 


I am from Porto Rico. 

Quinine is extracted from cin¬ 
chona. 

Where do you come from? 

Yesterday we worked from six 
to six. 

The steamer goes from New York 
to Carthagena in seven days. 

A railroad has just been built 
from Valparaiso to the Argen¬ 
tine frontier. 


*It is not intended here to give a list of all the Spanish prepositions 
with their various meanings. Only the most important ones will be 
treated in the following articles; nor will those meanings of them 
be dwelt on that can be readily learned from a Spanish-English 
dictionary. 








§26 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


13 


La reina bajo del trono & recibir j The queen descended from the 
a su distinguido visitante. [ throne to receive her distin¬ 

guished visitor. 

3. To denote cause: generally rendered by with or for, 
and sometimes by of. 


La pobre anciana lloro de placer. 

The poor old lady wept for 
pleasure. 

El condenado temblaba de temor. 

The sentenced man was trembling 
with fear. 

Me estoy muriendo de hambre. 

Mi tio Samuel murio de hidro- 
pesia. 

I am dying with hunger. 

My uncle Samuel died of dropsy. 


4. To express a distinguishing feature or characteristic: 
rendered by with. 


la senora de traje negro, 
el caballero de mostacho rubio 

the lady with the black dress 
the gentleman with the blond 
mustache 

el de la espada 

the one with the sword 


5. To denote occupation or office: rendered by as. When 
preceded by estar, and followed by the name of an office or 
occupation, it is not translated. (See Part 2, Ser and Estar.) 


Trabaja de ingeniero. 

^Quiere usted servirme de inter- 
prete? 

El general Castro estd de presi- 
dente. 

He works as an engineer. 

Will you serve me as interpreter? 

General Castro is now president. 


6. After some participles, to relate them to the names 
of the agents performing the actions or causing the states 
denoted by the participles: equivalent to by, sometimes to 
with. 


El jefe entro seguido de sus tres 1 
oficiales. 

Vino acompanado de un sacerdote. 
Estoy agobiado de desgracias. 

The chief entered followed by his 
three officers. 

He came accompanied by a priest. 

I am overwhelmed with misfor¬ 
tunes. 


Note. —For the use of de in the passive voice, see Part 7, The 
Passive Construction. 





14 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§26 


7. After some participles, to specify the material serving 
to place the object whose name is modified by the participle 
in the condition that the participle expresses: rendered by 
with or in. 


cubierto tie nieve perpetua 
vestido tie luto 
vestido tie bianco 


covered with perpetual snow 
dressed in mourning 
dressed in white 


8. In a great many adverbial phrases, to denote manner, 
state, or position. 


La santa estaba de rodillas ante 
una imagen de la Virgen. 

Lo mire de {rente. 

Acuestese de lado. 

Cai de espaldas; cayo de cara. 

9. After some verbs and 
about or on. 

(?De que hablaban ustedes? 

<;Que opina usted tie este negocio? 

Rankine escribio un tratado tie 
mec&nica. 


The saint was on her knees before 
an image of the Virgin. 

I looked him in the face. 

Lie on your side. 

I fell on my back; he fell on his 
face. 

substantives, in the sense of 


What were you talking about? 
What do you think about this 
business? 

Rankine wrote a treatise on me¬ 
chanics. 


10. In lively style, before a substantive denoting a human 
being, in the sense of that , that ... of a. Sometimes, how¬ 
ever, it is better not to translate it at all: it is simply an 
emphatic or expletive word, whose sole purpose is to give the 
phrase a familiar tone. 


el astuto de Juancho 
el pobre de mi hermano 
el farsante de Sanchez 


that wily Johnny 

that poor brother of mine 

that humbug of a Sanchez 


11. After certain adverbs of time and place, which can¬ 
not be used by themselves as prepositions. The most 
important of these adverbs are: 






§26 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


15 


abajo, below 

antes, before 

arriba, above 

cerca, near 

debajo, under 

delante, before , in front 


despues, after, afterwards 
detras, behind 
encima, on, over, on top 
fuera, out 
lejos, far 


In the first of the following two sets of examples, some of 
these adverbs are used by themselves, and their English 
equivalents are also adverbs; in the second, they are followed 
by de, forming combinations whose English equivalents are 
prepositions: 


Como dije antes , el mineral con¬ 
vene mas plata que oro. 

El enemigo estaba muy cerca , y 
nuestras municiones muy lejos. 

Ponga este libro encima, y ese 
debajo. 

La Melba canto primero, y la 
Nordica despues. 

Tenlamos el Mediterraneo delante 
y el Vesuvio detras. 


Voltaire murio antes del principio 
de la Revolucion Francesa. 

Venga a verme antes de partir. 

Estabamos muy cerca del ene¬ 
migo, y muy lejos de nuestra 
base de operaciones. 

Ponga este libro encima de la 
mesa, y ese debajo del pupitre. 

La Nordica canto despues de la 
Melba. 

El Mediterraneo estaba delante 
de nosotros. 

El fugitivo se escondio detras de 
la puerta. 


As I said before, the ore contains 
more silver than gold. 

The enemy were very near, and 
our munitions very far. 

Put this book on top, and that 
under. 

Melba sang first, and Nordica 
afterwards. 

We had the Mediterranean in 
front, and Vesuvius behind. 


Voltaire died before the beginning 
of the French Revolution. 

Come to see me before leaving. 

We were very near the enemy, 
and very far from our base of 
operations. 

Put this book on the table, and 
that one under the desk. 

Nordica sang after Melba. 

The Mediterranean was before us. 

The fugitive hid behind the door. 


When de follows antes or despues, and its object is a propo¬ 
sition, that proposition should be introduced by the announ¬ 
cing que. In such cases, however, de is generally omitted. 






16 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§26 


Debemos estar en el muelle antes 
que (or, antes de que) el 
vapor saiga. 

Despues que (or, Despues de 
que) acabe de copiar esas car¬ 
tas, lleve este dinero al banco. 


We must be on the wharf before the 
steamer leaves. 

After you finish copying those 
letters, take this money to the 
bank. 


12. With a, to denote denomination or rate. 


una moneda de a diez pesos 
un cigarro de a tres por veinti- 
cinco centavos 
un billete de A cien pesos 


a ten-dollar coin 

a three-for-twenty-five-cents cigar 
a one-hundred-dollar bank note 


DESDE 

22. When this preposition means since, and its object is 


a proposition, that proposition 
announcing que. 

Yo he trabajado con Rodriguez y 
Compania desde que abrieron 
su tabaqueria. 

Desde que don Alonso se volvio 
a casar, sus hijas no le hablan. 


should be introduced by the 


I have worked with Rodriguez 
and Company since they opened 
their cigar store. 

Since (the time when) Mr. Alonso 
married again, his daughters 
do not speak to him. 


EN 

23. This preposition is equivalent: 

1. To in or at, indicating location or place, and other 
relations that it would be difficult to state in detail. 


Mi esposa esta ahora en la Ha- 
bana. 

Yo vivo en Veracruz. 

Nos demoramos dos dias en un 
pueblo llamado San Antonio. 

Mi padre no esta en casa. 

Jorge Robles esta en la miseria 
absoluta.. 

Usted puede ir de aqui k Rio Ja¬ 
neiro en dos dias. 


My wife is now in Havana. 

I live in Vera Cruz. 

We stopped two days at a town 
called San Antonio. 

My father is not at home. 

George Robles is in absolute desti¬ 
tution. 

You may go from here to Rio 
Janeiro in two days. 








26 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


17 


2. To in or into. with verbs of motion, and to into in a 


great many other cases. 

Hagame el favor de echar esta 
carta en el buzon. 

Metase en la casa tan pronto 
como pueda. 

Los historiadores han dividido la 
historia universal en cuatro par¬ 
tes principales. 

Se acaba de inventar un proceso 
muy seneillo para trasformar el 
hierro colado en acero. 

3. To on, in a great many 
may serve as examples: 

Le pusieron una corona de espinas 
en la cabeza. 

Apoyese en mi brazo. 

Hace mucho calor en las costas, 
pero en las montanas la tem- 
peratura es muy agradable. 

La criada dice que el almuerzo 
esta en la mesa. 

La propiedad en disputa esta 
situada en la orilla izquierda 
del Orinoco. 

No gaste su dinero en tales baga- 
telas. 


Please put this letter in the letter 
box. 

Get into the house as soon as you 
can. 

Historians have divided universal 
history into four main parts. 

A very simple process has just 
been invented for transforming 
cast iron into steel. 

cases, of which the following 


They placed a crown of thorns on 
his head. 

Lean on my arm. 

It is very warm on the coasts, but 
on the mountains the tempera¬ 
ture is very pleasant. 

The servant says breakfast is on 
the table. 

The property in dispute is situ¬ 
ated on the left bank of the 
Orinoco. 

Do not spend your money on such 
trifles. 


HAST A 

24. This preposition is the equivalent of: 
1. Till , until. 


Permaneceremos aqui hasta el 
jueves de la semana entrante. 
Hasta ahora no hemos recibido 
contestacion a nuestra carta. 


We shall remain here until Thurs¬ 
day of next week. 

Thus far ( literally , Until now) 
we have not received an answer 
to our letter. 


If its object is a whole proposition, this proposition should 
be introduced by the announcing que. (Compare Art. 22.) 






18 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


26 


Aguarde aqui hasta que nosotros 
volvamos. 

No empiece a empacar esas cami- 
sas hasta que el fabricante 
envie las otras. 


Wait here until we return. 

Do not begin to pack those shirts 
until the manufacturer sends 
the others. 


In negative sentences like the last, antes de, before, may¬ 
be substituted for hasta. 

No empiece k empacar esas camisas antes de que el fabricante 
envie las otras. 


2. As far as, up to, to. 

Vino conmigo hasta la calle Diez. 

Tuve que ir hasta Quito en busca 
de un agrimensor. 

Hasta esta fecha, no hemos 
tenido noticias de la expedicion. 

Llego hasta decir que nosotros no 
somos hombres honrados. 

Aqui vendemos de todo, desde 
alfileres hasta locomotoras. 

Permanecl con el hasta el ultimo 
momento. 

3. Even. 

Los invasores mataron hasta los 
animales domesticos de los na- 
turales. 

Hasta me dijo que el negocio que 
ustedes tanto anuncian en los 
periodicos es una farsa. 

La pobre viuda ha tenido que 
vender hasta sus muebles. 


He came with me as far as Tenth 
street. 

I had to go as far as Quito in 
search of a surveyor. 

Up to this date, we have had no 
news of the expedition. 

He went as far as to say that we 
are not honest men. 

We sell everything here, from pins 
up to locomotives. 

I remained with him up to the 
last moment. 


The invaders killed even the 
domestic animals of the natives. 

He even told me that the business 
you advertise so much in the 
newspapers is a humbug. 

The poor widow has had to sell 
even her furniture. 


PARA 

25. This preposition is employed: 

1. To express purpose, use, end, or destination: rendered 
by for or to. (See also Part 5, Tl^e Adjective Substantive.) 






§26 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


19 


El hierro se emplea para muchas 
cosas. 

Este telegrama es para usted. 

Hay varios procesos para extraer 
el oro del mineral. 

iCuando sale usted para Cadiz? 

Vamos para el Callao. 

Mi hijo menor estudio para abo- 
gado. 

&Para que me necesita usted? 


Iron is used for many things. 

This telegram is for you. 

There are several processes for 
extracting gold from the ore. 
When do you set out for Cadiz? 
We are on our way to Callao. 

My youngest son studied for a 
lawyer. 

What do you need me for? 


2. With an infinitive, or with a proposition introduced by 
the announcing que , as its object, to denote the purpose for 
which something is done: rendered by to, in order that, so that, 
or simply by so or that. The verb in the object proposition 
should be subjunctive. 


Para traducir bien una lengua 
extranjera, no basta hablarla 
bien. 

Come para vivir; no vivas para 
comer. 

Enviele estas esmeraldas al joyero, 
para que el las examine. 

Ponga un poco de agua en ese 
florero, para que las flores no se 
marchiten. 

Nos invito a concurrir a la reu¬ 
nion en que iba a discutirse el 
proyecto, para que pudiesemos 
formamos una idea de las difi- 
cultades que hay que superar. 
Tenga todo listo, par-a que poda- 
mos salir inmediatamente que 
el coche llegue. 

3. 

infinitive, 
respect to the time denoted 
that which is denoted by the 
to, on the point of. 
expresses simple futurity, and 
going to, to be to. 


In order to translate well a foreign 
language, it is not sufficient to 
speak it well. 

Eat to live; do not live to eat. 

Send these emeralds to the jewel¬ 
er, that he may examine them. 

Put a little water in that flower 
vase, so that the flowers will not 
wither. 

He invited us to attend the meet¬ 
ing in which the project was to 
be discussed, that we might form 
an idea of the difficulties that it 
is necessary to surmount. 

Have everything ready, so that we 
may leave immediately after the 
carriage arrives. 


Preceded by a form of estar and followed by an 
to indicate immediate or near futurity, with 

by the form of estar, of 
infinitive: rendered by about 
Sometimes, the phrase estar para 
may be rendered by to be 




20 


SPANLSH GRAMMAR 


§26 


Estabamos para firmar el 
contrato, cuando se nos informo 
que el titulo del vendedor no 
era legal. 

La senorita Adelaida esta para 
casarse. 


We were about to sign the con¬ 
tract, when we were informed 
that the seller’s title was not 
legal. 

Miss Adelaide is to be married. 


4. To denote the time fixed for the performance of an 
action or the occurrence of an event: rendered by for. 


No dejes para manana lo que 
puedas hacer hoy. 

El ingeniero nos prometio los 
pianos para el martes de la 
semana entrante. 


Do not leave for tomorrow what 
you can do today. 

The engineer promised us the 
drawings for Tuesday of next 
week. 


5. To denote the limit of an interval of time within which 
something is to be done or accomplished: equivalent to by. 


Su terno estara terminado para 
manana. 

Para el ultimo del mes habre- 
mos despachado todos estos 
pedidos. 


Your suit will be finished by to¬ 
morrow. 

By the last of the month we shall 
have sent off all these orders. 


6. In contrasting complex sentences like the following, 
to indicate that the predicate in the principal proposition is 
not what would ordinarily be anticipated: rendered by for. 


Habla muy mal el ingles ,para un 
hombre que ha vivido diez anos 
en Inglaterra. 

Para un graduado de la universi- 
dad, sabe muy poco. 

7. In the sense of compared 

like the following: 

Estos caminos son excelentes, para 
los que hemos visto en Bolivia. 

iQ ue es la vida del hombre para 
la duracion casi infinita de 
nuestro sistema solar? 


He speaks English very poorly 
for a man who has lived ten 
years in England. 

For a graduate of the University, 
he knows very little. 

with , or of to , in expressions 


These roads are excellent, com¬ 
pared with those we have seen 
in Bolivia. 

What is man’s life compared with 
the almost infinite duration of 
our solar system? 







§26 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


21 


Lo que heraos sufrido no es nada What we have suffered is nothing 

para lo que aun tenemos que to what we still have to suffer, 
sufrir. 

8. To restrict the application of a predicate adjective, by 
specifying that it applies to the subject only as the latter 
affects or is viewed by the person denoted by the object of 
para: rendered by to or for. 

Para mi, eso es absolutamente To me, that is absolutely incon- 
inconcebible. ceivable. 

Los metodos de la diplomacia son The methods of diplomacy are 
casi imposibles de comprender 1 almost impossible to understand 
para gente que se ha criado en j for people who have grown in 
los campamentos militares. military camps. 


9. In the expression para con , which is equivalent to eon, 
with, and denotes feeling, attitude, or behavior with regard 
to a person: rendered by to. As just stated, para may be 
omitted, and con used alone. 


Ella ha sido muy buena para con 
nosotros. 

Se manejo muy mal para con- 
migo. 


She has been very kind to us. 

He behaved very badly toward 
me. 


POR 

26. This preposition is used: 

1. To indicate agency or authorship. (See also Part 7, 


The Passive Construction.) 

Tengo un tratado de economia 
politica por Juan Bautista Say. 

Acabo de ver el primer numero 
de una revista mensual redac- 
tada por don Emilio Castelar. 

Vease “El principio de la po- 
blacion,” por Malthus. 


I have a treatise on political econ¬ 
omy by John Baptist Say. 

I have just seen the first number 
of a monthly review edited by 
Mr. Emilio Castelar. 

See “The Principle of Popula¬ 
tion,” by Malthus. 


In referring to a book or writing and its author, de is used 
as the equivalent of the English possessive sign (’$). 





22 SPANISH GRAMMAR §26 


“Los primeros principios” de Her¬ 
bert Spencer. 

“La decadencia y ruina del Im- 
perio Romano” de Gibbon. 

Este pasaje ocurre en el “Otelo” 
de Shakespeare. 


Herbert Spencer’s “First Prin¬ 
ciples.” 

Gibbon’s “Decline and Fall of the 
Roman Empire.” 

This passage occurs in Shakes¬ 
peare’s “Othello.” 


2. To denote motive, reason, or cause: rendered by for, 
ozving to, or on account of, because. 


No vine ayer, por haber estado 
muy ocupado. 

Todo lo perdimos por querer ga- 
narlo todo. 

Tome esa resolucion por motivos 
que por ahora* no puedo hacer 
publicos. 

Lo hare por usted, aunque no lo 
haria por nadie mas. 

Tal fue la razon por la cual pro- 
testfimos la letra de usted. 

Por ustedes se echo k perder ese 
negocio. 


I did not come yesterday, because 
I was very busy. 

• We lost all through our wishing 
to gain all. 

I took that resolution for motives 
that I cannot make public just 
at present. 

I will do it for you, although I 
would not do it for anybody 
else. 

Such was the reason why ( liter¬ 
ally the reason for which) we 
protested your draft. 

It was through your fault that that 
business fell through ( literally , 
That business was ruined on 
your account). 


3. To denote an interval of time: rendered by for. 


Permaneceremos aqui por cuatro 
6 cinco dias. 

El y yo nos hemos conocido por 
rods de un ano. 


We shall remain here for four or 
five days. 

He and I have known each other 
for more than a year. 


4. To indicate instrumentality, means, or mode of action: 
equivalent to by. 


Nosotros ensenamos idiomas por 
medio del fonografo. 

Hubo que traer al desertor por la 
fuerza. 


We teach languages by means of 
the phonograph. 

It was necessary to bring the 
deserter by force. 


*Por ahora: idiomatic expression meaning just at present, for the 
time being. 







26 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


23 


Alii no se viaja por ferrocarril. 

Es mas facil ir a la Habana por 
agua que por tierra. 


People there do not travel by 
railroad. 

It is easier to go to Havana by 
water than by land. 


5. To denote place passed through or by: rendered by 


through, by, or the way of. 

El prisionero se escapo por la ven- 
tana. 

Entre por aqui, doctor. 

Nosotros entramos por la puerta 
del sur, y el enemigo salio por 
la del norte. 

Don Jose paso por aqui esta ma- 
nana. 

([Piensa usted ir a Santiago de 
Chile por Colon 6 por San 
Francisco? 

Ser is often omitted after 

following: 

Lo despidieron por negligente. 

Lo fusilaron por traidor. 


The prisoner escaped through the 
window. 

Come in this way {literally, 
through here), doctor. 

We went in through the southern 
gate, and the enemy went out 
through the northern. 

Mr. Joseph went by here this 
morning. 

Do you intend to go to Santiago 
de Chile by the way of Colon or 
by that of San Francisco? 

por , in expressions like the 


They discharged him on account 
of his negligence ( literally , for 
being negligent). 

They shot him for being a traitor. 


6. To denote place passed over or moved along: rendered 
by over, about , or along; sometimes by in. 


Viajamos por toda la Europa. 

El bote bajo por el lado izquierdo 
del rio. 

Don Juan y Haidea vagaban, ya 
por el interior de la isla, ya por 
la costa. 


We traveled all over Europe. 

The boat descended along the left 
bank of the river. 

Don Juan and Haidee roamed, 
sometimes about the interior of 
the island, sometimes along the 
coast. 


7. To indicate prompting motive: rendered by for the 
sake of, out of. 






24 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


26 


Lo hice por cortesia. 

Socorrame, por el amor de Dios. 
Por piedad, senor, no se lleve a 
mi hijo. 


I did it out of courtesy. 

Help me, for God’s sake. 

For mercy’s sake, sir, do not take 
away my son. 


8. To denote price or anything- else received in exchange: 
rendered by for. 


Compre un caballo por cien pesos. 

Cambie mi capa por un sobre- 
todo. 

<;Cuanto le dieron por su guitarra? 
Trabajo por cien pesos al mes. 


I bought a horse for one hundred 
dollars. 

I exchanged my cloak for an over¬ 
coat. 

How much did they give you for 
your guitar? 

I work for one hundred dollars a 
month. 


9. To denote rate: rendered by per or a. 


El oro se vendia entonces a diez y 
seis pesos por onza. 

Le compre los cigarros a dos pesos 
por ciento. 

Este canon da al proyectil una 
velocidad inicial de seiscientos 
metros por segundo. 

En esta empresa, el capital inver- 
tido devenga un interes anual 
de quince por ciento. 


Gold sold then at sixteen dollars 
an ounce. 

I bought the cigars from him at 
two dollars a hundred. 

This gun gives the projectile 
an initial velocity of six hundred 
meters per second. 

In this enterprise, the capital in¬ 
vested draws a yearly interest 
of fifteen per cent. 


In stating prices, however, por may be replaced by the 
definite article. (See Part 5, The Definite Article.) 


El oro se vendia entonces a diez y seis pesos la onza. 

10. With verbs of reckoning, and in expressions where 
the idea of reckoning is implied, to indicate that a collective 
numeral is taken as a unit: equivalent to by. 


Cuente esos panuelos por docenas. 

Si usted compra las camisas por 
docena, le daremos un des- 
cuento de veinte por ciento. 

Hoy hemos recibido contestacio- 
nes por miles. 


Count those handkerchiefs by 
dozens. 

If you buy the shirts by the dozen, 
we will give you a discount of 
twenty per cent. 

We have today received answers 
by the thousand. 






§26 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


25 


When, as in the second of these two examples, the collect¬ 
ive numeral is a basis for reckoning prices, it should be in 
the singular; otherwise, in the plural. It will be observed 
that in neither case is the collective numeral preceded by 
the definite article. 

11. In the sense of for or as, to indicate that a predicate 
substantive or adjective is from appearances believed or sup¬ 
posed to be applicable to the subject or accusative of the verb. 


Me tomaron por maestro de piano. 
Pasa por perito en la materia. 

Lo dejaron por muerto. 


They took me for a piano teacher. 
He passes as an expert on the 
subject. 

They left him for dead. 


12. In the sense of en busca de, in search of: rendered 
by for or after. 


Yu&por lana, y volvio trasquilado. 
(Proverbio.) 

Vengo por la carta de recomenda- 
cion que usted me prometio. 

Es preciso mandar por un medico 
inmediatamente. 


He went after wool, and came 
back shorn. {Proverb.) 

I come for the letter of recommen¬ 
dation that you promised me. 

It is necessary to send for a physi¬ 
cian at once. 


13. In the sense of en favor de, in behalf of, for the sake 
of, for. (See also 2, above.) 


Hobson resolvio sacrificarse por 
su patria. 

Caton abogo por la muerte de los 
conjurados. 

La mayoria voto por la enmienda 
que el senador McKinley intro- 
dujo. 

14. To denote distribution: 


Hobson resolved to sacrifice him¬ 
self for his country. 

Cato pleaded for the death of the 
conspirators. 

The majority voted for the amend¬ 
ment that Senator McKinley 
introduced. 

equivalent to by. 


uno por uno; palabra por palabra. | one by one; word by word. 


15. In connection with que, in the sense of however, no 
matter how, to intensify the meaning of an adjective or 
adverb placed between por and que. (Compare Part 6, The 
Subjunctive After Certain Conjunctive and Adverbial Words 
and Phrases.) 





26 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§26 


Por buena que sea la casa que 
usted ha comprado, no vale lo 
que usted ha pagado por ella. 

Por aprisa que el orador hable, 
mi estenografista puede seguirlo 
y escribir su discurso. 

However good the house you have 
bought may be, it is not worth 
what you have paid for it. 

No matter how fast the orator 
may speak, my stenographer 
can follow him and write down 
his speech. . 


16. To denote location, locality, or time, in a vague and 
indefinite, sometimes uncertain, manner: rendered by around, 
about, in. 


Por esas tierras no se conoce la 
luz electrica. 

Creo que 61 ahora esta por Fila- 
delfia. 

Tal vez regresemos por mayo 6 
junio del ano que viene. 

Electric light is not known in 
those countries. 

I think he is now in Philadelphia. 

We may, perhaps, return by {or, 
about) Mayor June of next year. 


17. In exclamations, oaths, and pledging affirmations like 
the following, in which it is equivalent to by: 


;por Dios! jpor laWirgen! 
por mi palabra de honor 

Juro por la Biblia que beso y por 
su divino autor. 

by God! by the Virgin! 
by my word of honor 

I swear by the Bible I am kissing 
and by its divine author. 


18. With an infinitive, to indicate that the action denoted 
by the infinitive remains to be done: rendered by the infini¬ 
tive sign to, or by to be followed by the participle of the verb. 


Aun hay cuatro cartas por es¬ 
cribir. 

El ferrocarril esta aun por cons- 
truirse. 

Dejamos cinco manuscritos por 
corregir. 

There are still four letters to be 
written. 

The railroad is yet to be built. 

We left five manuscripts to be cor¬ 
rected {or, without correcting). 


19. In the expression estarpor , which means to be inclined 
to, to have a mind to. 


Estoy por ir a ver porque no ha 
venido don Pedro. 

Estoy por devolver esta cuenta sin 
abrirla. 

I have a mind to go and see why 
Mr. Peter has not come. 

I am inclined to return this bill 
without opening it. 







26 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


27 


THE CONJUNCTION 


ONE-WORD CONJUNCTIONS* 


MAS, PERO, AND SINO 

27. Difference Between Pero and Sino. —Although 
pero and sino are both rendered by but , they are by no means 
interchangeable: pero means but in the sense of however , 
while sino is employed after the predicate of a negative sen¬ 
tence, to introduce another sentence the predicate of which 
excludes the predicate that is denied in the former sentence. 


Aqui hay muehos bancos, pero 
ninguno de ellos tiene un capi¬ 
tal de mas de cien mil pesos. 

El edificio a que usted se refiere 
no es un banco , sino una sina- 
goga. 


There are many banks here, but 
none of them has a capital of 
more than one hundred thou¬ 
sand dollars. 

The building to which you refer 
is not a bank, but a synagogue. 


Although the verb es is not expressed after sino , it is 
understood, the complete sentence following the conjunction 
being es una sinagoga, is a synagogue , which excludes the 
predicate es un banco , denied in the sentence preceding sino. 
It must be borne in mind, however, that, if the verb in the 
sentence following sino is expressed, it should be introduced 
by the announcing que. This rule applies not only in cases 
like the one just considered, in which the verb may be, and 
usually is, omitted, but also in those in which the verb, 
being part of the excluding predicate, must be expressed. 

*It is not intended here to give a list of all conjunctions, but only of 
those the exact meaning and proper employment of which cannot be 
learned from a dictionary. 






28 


SPANISIP GRAMMAR 


§26 


El edificio a que usted se refiere 
no es un banco, sino que es 
una sinagoga. 

El no vive aqui, sino en lacasa 
siguiente. 

El no vive aqui, sino que vive 
. en la casa siguiente. 

El secretario no escribio la carta , 
sino que la dictb. 

No solo nos negaron la entrada, 
sino que nos despidieron con 
palabras descorteses. 


The building to which you refer 
is not a bank, but it is a syna¬ 
gogue. 

He does not live here, but in the 
next house. 

He does not live here, but he 
lives in the next house. 

The secretary did not write, but 
dictated, the letter. 

They not only refused us the 
entrance, but dismissed us with 
uncivil words. 


28. Mas and pero are absolutely synonymous, although 
the latter is more common in familiar style. The conjunc¬ 
tion mas is distinguished from mas, adjective, adverb, and 
neuter, in that it has no accent mark over the a. 


Aqui hay muchos bancos, mas ninguno de ellos tiene un capital 
de mas de cien mil pesos. 

29. No . . . sino. —In the examples considered in 
Art. 27, this combination was rendered by not . . . b7it. 
In cases like the following, it is translated by bid or only: 


No tengo sino cuarenta pesos en 
el banco. 

De las obras de Cervantes, no he 
leido sino el “Don Quijote.” 

El hombre ese no es sino un far- 
sante. 

Yo no he viajado sino por las 
Antillas. 


I have only forty dollars in the 
bank. 

Of the works of Cervantes, I have 
read only “Don Quixote.” 

That man is but a humbug. 

I have traveled only in the West 
Indies. 


Either solo or solamente , both of which mean only, may 
replace the combination no . . . sino. 

Tengo solo (or, solamente ) cuarenta pesos en el banco. 

Yo he viajado solo (or, solamente ) por las Antillas. 

30. Sino is similarly combined with other negative 
words, such as nadie, ninguno, nobody. The whole com¬ 
bination may be rendered by only , or the negative may be 
rendered independently, and sino translated by but or except. 






§26 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


29 


No one saw us except the night 
watchman. 

Only the night watchman saw us. 
No one has been here but the 
doctor. 

Only the doctor has been here. 

31. Care should be taken not to confound the conjunc¬ 
tion sino with the phrase si no, if not. 

“iA quien he de acudir, si no a “To whom am I to apply, if not 
mi propio hermano?’’ to my own brother?” 

It is only through either carelessness or ignorance that 
writers occasionally use sino in cases like this. 


Nadie nos vio sino el sereno. 


Ninguno ha esatdo aqui sino el 
doctor. 


THE CONJUNCTION NI AND THE ADVERB TAMPOCO 

32. NI.— This conjunction renders both nor and neither , 
and also or and either , when the latter are used as correla¬ 
tives of no or not , or after other negative words or expres¬ 


sions. The Spanish 6 , which 
or, cannot be the correlative of 

La telegrafia sin alambres no 
puede aun competir con los te- 
legrafos ordinarios, ni es pro¬ 
bable que los suplante antes de 
varios anos. 

Estoy sin dinero ni esperanza. 

Es imposible (No es posible) 
llevar maquinaria a esa region, 
ni beneficiar las minas de nin- 
guna otra manera. 

I Quien tiene (Nadie tiene) la 
paciencia ni los conocimientos 
necesarios para escribir una 
obra de esta naturaleza ? 

No quiero ni hablarle ni verlo. 

No teniamos ni armas ni pro¬ 
visions. 

In the last two examples, th< 
be omitted. 


is the literal equivalent of 
no or of any other negative. 

Wireless telegraphy cannot yet 
compete with ordinary tele¬ 
graphs; nor is it likely that it 
will supplant them before sev¬ 
eral years. 

I am without money or hope. 

It is impossible to carry machinery 
to that region, or to work the 
mines in any other way. 

Who has the necessary patience 
or knowledge to write a work 
of this nature? 

I do not wish either to speak to 
him or to see him. 

We had neither arms nor pro¬ 
visions. 

first ni is emphatic, and may 





30 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§26 


No quiero hablarle ni verlo. 

No teniamos armas ni provisiones. 

It is further to be observed that ni, like other negatives, 
requires no when it follows, but not when it precedes, the 
verb. 

Ni hablarle ni verlo quiero. 

Ni armas ni provisiones teniamos. 

The form with no is, however, generally preferred, except 
in cases in which the first ni is really a substitute for no , as 


in the following example: 


Ni soy de California, ni he vivido 
alii. 

No soy de California, ni he vivido 
alii. 

I neither am from California, nor 
have lived there. 

I am not from California, nor 
have lived there. 


33. Ni should never be followed by algo, something , 
anything; alguien, some one , any one; alguno, some, any; 
but, instead, by the negatives nada, nothing; nadie, no one; 
ninguno, not any , none. 


No le concederan ese privilegio a 
usted ni a nadie. 

No me dieron el pasaporte, la or- 
den para el alcalde, ni nada. 

They will not grant that privilege 
to you nor to any one. 

They did not give me the pass¬ 
port, the order for the mayor, 
nor anything. 

No he recibido la carta a que 
usted se refiere, ni ninguna 
otra. 

I have not received the letter to 
which you refer, nor any other. 


34. Either ni or the phrase ni aun , preceding a substan¬ 
tive or a substantive phrase, is often equivalent to not even , 


and sometimes to not. 


Aquel monstruo no amaba ni (or, 
ni aun) a su madre. 

No tengo ni un centavo. 

La poblacion de las Islas Britani- 
cas no es ni la octava parte de 
la de China. 

That monster did not love even 
his mother. 

I have not a cent. 

The population of the British Isles 
is not even one-eighth of that of 
China. 


The phrase ni siquiera is employed in the same sense. 





26 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


31 


iNo puedes prestarme ni siquiera 
diez pesos? 

Don Jaime ni siquiera me hablo. 


Can you not lend me even {or, at 
least) ten dollars? 

Mr. James did not even speak to 
me. 


35. Tampoco. — This adverb renders the English neither 
or not . . . either. After ni, it is equivalent to either. Like 


other negatives, it requires no 
when it precedes, the verb. 

Yo no he oido a Paderewski, ni a 
Rosenthal tampoco. 
sNo toca usted la guitarra tam- 1 
poco ? i 

£ Tampoco toca usted la guitarra? J 
Mi senora no es americana, ni yo 
tampoco. 


or ni when it follows, but not 


I have not heard Paderewski, nor 
Rosenthal either. 

Do you not play the guitar either? 

My wife is not an American, nor 
I either. 


36. Ni is often omitted before tampoco, being understood. 


Nosotros no hemos recibido noti- 
cias de Bogota.— Nosotros tam¬ 
poco (or, Ni nosotros tampoco ). 

37. At the beginning of 
times better rendered by nor. 

Tampoco es de esperarse que In- 
glaterra reconozca la indepen¬ 
dence del Transvaal. 

Tampoco puede considerarse el 
comercio de una nacion como 
Indice de su desarrollo intelec- 
tual ni moral. t 


We have not received news from 
Bogota. —Nor we either. 


a sentence, tampoco is some- 


Nor is it to be expected that Eng¬ 
land will recognize the inde¬ 
pendence of the Transvaal. 

Nor can the commerce of a nation 
be considered as an index of its 
intellectual or moral develop¬ 
ment. 


38. In answers, tampoco is used by itself in the sense of 
not either, but is better rendered by nor . . . either , with the 
appropriate word between nor and either; or simply by no. 

^Ha estado usted en Santiago?— Have you been in Santiago? —No, 
No, senor. — ^Ni en la Ha- I sir. — Nor in Havana? —Nor 
bana? — Tampoco . there either. 






32 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§26 


El muehacho me acaba de decir 
que don Eduardo no ha re- 
gresado. <;La senora de el 
tampoco ha vuelto?— Tampoco, 
sehor. 


The boy has just told me that 
Mr. Edward has not returned. 
Has not his wife come back 
either? —No, sir. 


6 

39. This conjunction renders both the English conjunc¬ 
tions or and either , but never the adverb or the adjective either. 
When it precedes a word beginning with o- or ho -, it should 
be changed to u. The English or, employed as the correla¬ 
tive of not or nor, should be rendered by ni, as explained in 
Art. 32, and not by 6. 


Saldremos hoy 6 manana. 

O yo estoy muy equivocado, 6 
esta es la misma prensa de 
copiar que devolvimos ayer. 

La primera edicion se publico 
hace diez ii t»nce anos. 

^Cual le pareee a usted mejor 
poeta, Virgilio ii Homerot 


\ We shall leave today or tomorrow. 

Either 1 am much mistaken, or 
this is the same copying press 
that we returned yesterday. 

The first edition was published 
ten or eleven years ago. 

Which do you think is the better 
poet, Virgil or Homer? 


QUE 


40. Besides the numerous offices of que with which the 
student is already familiar, the following conjunctional uses 
are worthy of notice: 

1. It may take the place of pnes, for, as a causal or con¬ 
sequential conjunction. This use of que is almost exclusively 
restricted to elevated style. 


Leonidas y sus espartanos, aun- 
que sin esperanza de obtener 
la victoria en una lucha tan 
desigual, prefirieron morir a 
ceder el campo al enemigo; que 
aquellos heroes temian mas la 
derrota que la muerte. 

Puede un escritor hacer muchos 
versos sin ser poeta; que la ver- 
sificacion y la poesia no son de 
ninguna manera identicas. 


Leonidas and his Spartans, al¬ 
though without hope of obtain¬ 
ing the victory in so unequal a 
struggle, preferred to die rather 
than to yield the field to the 
enemy; for those heroes feared 
defeat more than death. 

A writer may make many verses 
without being a poet; for versi¬ 
fication and poetry are by no 
means identical. 







§26 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


33 


2. It is also equivalent to pues in parenthetical expres¬ 
sions like the following: 


El coronel Washington (que esto 
sucedio antes de que se le hi- 
ciese general), era opuesto a 
aquella campana. 

El zancudo (que asi se llama el 
mosquito en el Magdalena) es 
una plaga insoportable. 


Colonel Washington (for this hap¬ 
pened before he was made a 
general) was opposed to that 
campaign. 

The “zancudo” (for that is the 
name of the mosquito in the 
Magdalena) is an unbearable 
plague. 


3. It is very commonly used to indicate that what is 
stated after it is the reason for making the statement or 
asking the question preceding it. In English, the connec¬ 
tion is usually understood, and que is generally not translated. 


iDonde ha estado usted hoy, que Where have you been today? I 
no lo he visto? have not seen you. 


This sentence may be considered as an elliptical form of 
the following: 


<;D6nde ha estado usted hoy? Le 
pregunto , porque no lo he 
visto. 

Similarly, 

Dese prisa, que van k dar las seis. 

Vamos, que el vapor esta para 
salir. 

i Usted que tiene, que estd tan 
callado? 


Where have you been today? I 
ask you, because I have not 
seen you. 


Make haste; it is about to strike 
six. 

Come on; the steamer is about to 
leave. 

What is the matter with you, that 
you are so quiet? 


4. As an expletive or emphatic word, it precedes some 
demonstratives in sentences like the following, in which it is 
not translated, and may be omitted: 


Despues de atormentar al pobre 
anciano de mil maneras, le 
hicieron presenciar el tormento 
y la muerte de sus dos hijas: 
jqtie tanta era la crueldad de 
aquellos fanaticos! 


After torturing the poor old man 
in a thousand ways, they made 
him witness the torture and 
death of his two daughters: 
such ( literally , so much) was 
the cruelty of those fanatics! 




34 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


26 


5. It may take the place of y, and , in negative expres¬ 
sions like the following, in which it may be rendered by and, 
but is better left untranslated: 

Gloria quiero, que no riquezas. I want glory, not wealth. 

Fue el quien lo hizo, qtie no yo. It was he who did it, not I. 


6. It may be equivalent to ya sea que, whether, in the 
combination que . . . que, whether . . . or. 


Ire a verlo esta noche, que llueva 
que truene. 

El nino debe tomar su remedio, 
que quiera que no. 


I will go to see you this evening, 
whether it rains or thunders. 
The child must take his medicine, 
whether he will or not. 


7. It is often employed at the beginning of a question 
relating to a previous statement, some form of decir, to 
say, or of another verb being understood before it. In such 
cases, it may sometimes be rendered by and so, is it so that. 

tQtie no tiene usted dinero? 

iQue trae usted noticias de mi 
hijo? 

iQue eres tu aquel muchachito a 
quien hace pocos anos ensene a 
leer? 


(You say) that you have no 
money? 

Is it so that you bring news of my 
son ? 

And so you are that little boy 
whom a few years ago I taught 
how to read? 


8. It occurs in a great many exclamatory expressions, 
and as a connective between some adverbial and inter- 
jectional words or phrases and propositions following them. 
In this class of expressions it serves simply as a sort of 


announcing word, and is not 
iQue me matan! 

/Por Dios que te hare pagar por 
tu cobardia! 

iA fe mia que otra vez no me 
enganaran! 

Por supuesto, senora, que ten- 
dremos mucho gusto en ensenar 
a usted nuestra fabrica. 


translated. 

They are killing me! 

By Heaven! I will make thee pay 
for thy cowardice! 

By my faith! another time they 
will not deceive me. 

Of course, madam, we will be 
very glad to show you our fac¬ 
tory. 






26 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


35 


si 

41. Primary Meanings. — This conjunction, which par¬ 
takes of the nature of an adverb, is primarily used: 

1. In conditional sentences, meaning if. 


Si alguien preguntare por mi, 
diga que he salido. 

Si usted hubiera seguido mi con- 
sejo, no hubiera perdido su 
dinero. 


If any one asks for me, say I have 
gone out. 

If you had followed my advice, 
you would not have lost your 
money. 


2. In alternative statements, meaning whether. 


No se si el baile tendra lugar hoy 
d manana. 

Es dificil determinar si Europa 
fue poblada por asiaticos, 6 Asia 
por europeos. 

Aun no puedo decir si ire 6 no. 


I do not know whether the ball 
will take place today or tomor¬ 
row. 

It is difficult to determine whether 
Europe was peopled by Asiatics, 
or Asia by Europeans. 

I cannot yet tell whether I shall 
go or not. 


42. When whether , with or as its correlative, serves to 
introduce two alternatives, of both of which a certain action 
or fact is represented as independent, whether is rendered by 
sea que, be it, and or (or, or whether ) either by sea que or by 
6 que. Sometimes, both whether and or are rendered by que 
(see Art. 40, 6). 


Sea que Napoleon haya sido ven- 
cido por circunstancias ines- 
peradas, sea que su derrota se 
haya debido al genio de Welling¬ 
ton, es indudable que aquel, 
como militar, era infinitamente 
superior a este. 


Whether Napoleon was defeated 
through unexpected circum¬ 
stances, or whether his defeat 
was due to the genius of Wel¬ 
lington, there is no doubt that 
the former, as a military man, 
was infinitely superior to the 
latter. 


Sea que may be omitted before a subjunctive verb, it being 
understood. 

Quieras 6 no, tendras que obe- Whether you will or not, you will 
decer nuestras ordenes. have to obey our orders. 






36 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§26 


No creo que el senor Cisneros este 
en su despacho ahora.— Este 6 
no este, traiga el libro mayor 
que esta sobre su escritorio. 


I do not think that Mr. Cisneros 
is in his office now. —Whether 
he is or not, bring the ledger 
that is on his desk. 


43. Idiomatic Meanings. —The following'are common 
idiomatic meanings of si: 

1. With a verb in the future, it denotes curiosity and 
uncertainty. It may then be rendered by / wonder if, followed 
by the appropriate tense of the verb. 


Si Hover a esta noche. 

Si dona Laura sabra que el hijo 
ha muerto. 

Si Juanito habra olvidado ir por 
la modista. 


I wonder if it will rain tonight. 

I wonder if Mrs. Laura knows 
that her son is dead. 

I wonder if Johnnie has forgotten 
to go after the dressmaker. 


2. At the beginning of a sentence, to introduce the prot¬ 
asis of a conditional sentence whose apodosis is understood, 
it being indicated by the context or the circumstances. Si 
may then be rendered by but or why , or by such expressions 


as / tell you, the fact is, etc.; 
render it at all. 

Traigame mis guantes, Maria.— 
Si no est&n aqui, maml 

Si don Jose es un viejo chocho 
que no sabe lo que dice. 

dPorque no llamaste a la criada? 

— Si no la encontre, mama. 
iSabe usted su leccion ya? — No, 
senor, si no la he estudiado 
mas que un cuarto de hora. 


sometimes it is better not to 


Bring my gloves, Maria. — But they 
are not here, mama (or, Why, 
mama, they are not here). 

Why, Mr. Joseph is a doting old 
man that knows not what he 
says. 

Why did you not call the servant 
girl? —I did not find her, mama. 

Do you know your lesson already? 
— No, sir; I have studied it only 
a quarter of an hour. 


The implied apodoses of these sentences are, respectively: 


icomo puedo llevarselos? 
icomo se puede depender de lo 
que el diga? (or something simi¬ 
lar, according to circumstances ). 
icomo podia llamarla? 

^como puedo saberla? 


how can I bring them to you? 
how can one depend on what he 
says? 

how could I call her? 
how can I know it? 







§26 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


37 


3. In the phrase por si, in case that. 


Es bueno que se arme, por si lo 
atacaren los ladrones en el 
camino. 

Guarde aqui esta carta para el 
senor Alvarez, por si el viene 
esta tarde. 


It is well for you to arm yourself, 
in case the highwaj’men attack 
you on the road. 

Keep here this letter for Mr. 
Alvarez, in case he should come 
this afternoon. 


Y 

44. This conjunction is the equivalent of the English 
and , but should be changed to S before a word beginning 
with i or hi (except words beginning with hie). 

egoista e fngrato selfish and ungrateful 

aguja e hi\ o needle and thread 

acero y hie rro steel and iron 


CONJUNCTIONAL PHRASES 

45. The following are important phrases having a con¬ 
junctional value: 


a fin de que, in order that 

a medida que, according as 

a menos que, 1 
, > unless 

a no ser que, J 

bien que, although 

caso que, in case that 

como quiera que, however; since 

con que, so, so then 

con tal que, provided that 

dado que, 1 . 

, , ni 

dado caso que, J 

de manera que, 1 

de modo que, He that 

de suerte que, J 


yin case that 




in case that 


'while. 


en caso que, 

en caso de que, 

en tanto que, 

entre tanto que, 

mientras que, ] 

no obstante que, notwithstanding 

pues que, ] . 
r \since 

puesto que, J 

sea que, whether 

siempre que, whenever 

sin que, without 

supuesto que, since 

tanto que, so much that 

ya que, since 






38 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§26 


THE INTERJECTION 


PURE INTERJECTIONS 

46. The principal pure interjections, that is, words 
that are not employed in any other office, are: 

jah! ah! job! oh! both of which serve the same purposes 
and are used under the same conditions as their respective 
English equivalents. 

jay! oh! ay! alas! — denotes pain, either physical or moral. 
The combination ay de is equivalent to woe to or woe is. 


jay de mi! jay de ti! 
jAy de los que desobedecieren mis 
mandamientos! 


woe is me! woe is thee! 

Woe to them who shall disobey 
my commandments! 


jbah! pshaw! — indicates contempt or indifference. 

;ca! jquia! no!.never! — express indignant denial or strong 
incredulity. 

jcanasto! jcanario! j caracoles! jcaray! jcaramba! 
jcaspita! jdiantre! — mild or euphemistic forms of swear¬ 
ing serving to denote a variety of emotions, such as anger, 
surprise, determination, etc.: they may be rendered by such 
interjections as gracious! dear me! the dickens! by jingo! 
according to circumstances, 
j chi ton! hist! hush! silence! 
jea! come! now! —a. word of encouragement, 
jea! come! hurry!— expresses impatience, 
jeh! eh! — has the same meanings as its English equiva¬ 
lent, and is further used in the sense of pshaw! to express 
incredulity, contempt, or indifference. 

jhola! jola! oh! hallo! — expresses surprise, discovery, 
or recognition. 

jbuy! ouch! ^/ — expresses physical pain caused by a 
sudden shock, or fear occasioned by momentary danger. 




26 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


39 


iojala! would that! etc. For the uses of this interjection 
see Part 6, The Subjunctive in Propositions Introduced by 
the Announcing Que; and Part 8, Secondary Meanings of 
the Tenses. 

ipuf! ugh!— expresses disgust. 

itate! stop! don't! also, I see! I have it! expressing that 
something has just dawned upon the speaker’s mind. 


OTHER WORDS USED INTERJECTION AEEY 

47. Among other words used with an interjectional value, 
the most important are: 

1. The imperatives of certain verbs. 


janda! go away! you don't mean 
it! (incredulity), 
jcalla! 1 nonsense! (incredulity, dis- 
i calle! / couragement). 


jvaya! of course! indeed! I must 
say! what an idea! 
jvaya que si! most assuredly! 
jvaya que no! no hideed! 
jtoma! indeed! I see! 


2. Adjectives followed by de, in expressions like the 
following: 

/desgraciados de nosotros! I unfortunate that we are! 

/miserable de ti! | wretched that thou art! 


3. The names of Jesus, God, the Virgin, and the saints. 
As has been remarked in another place, the interjectional 
use of these names, although seldom found in elevated style, 
is not considered either profane or vulgar among Spanish¬ 
speaking people. They are generally employed to denote 
surprise, pain, despair, and a great many other emotions. 
Their meaning can always be understood from the circum¬ 
stances. They may be rendered by ah me! dear me! 
gracious! etc. With por, they form phrases equivalent to for 
mercy's sake! for pity's sake! and the like, and also emphatic 
asseverative expressions having the form of oaths and equiv¬ 
alent to by Jove! by heavens! etc.' 

jDios mio! ^hasta cuando durara 
esto? 


Dear me! ( literally , My God!) 
till when will this thing last? 




40 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


26 


j Jesus, Maria y Jose! jque escan- 
dalo! 

jPor la Virgen, que animal tan 
horrible! 

iJesus, senor! no diga mas, jpor 
la Virgen santisima! 

jPor San Pedro, que no ha de 
salir vivo de aqui! 


Goodness me! what a scandal! 

Gracious! what a horrible animal! 

Heavens, sir! say no more, for 
mercy’s sake! ( literally , for the 
most blessed Virgin’s sake). 

By Jove! he shan’t get out of 
here alive! 



SPANISH GRAMMAR 

(PART 12) 


SYNTAX 


ORDER OF WORDS 


INTRODUCTION 

1. Besides the rudimentary principles of syntax con¬ 
tained in Part 2, a great many other syntactic rules have 
been given all through this Course in connection with the 
different parts of speech. The rest of the Grammar will be 
devoted to a more systematic treatment of the order of 
words in the sentence and the interdependence of their 
forms. 

The rules here given apply to the most common cases and 
cover all those forms of construction that are likely to occur 
either in every-day conversation or in ordinary literature. 
When considered in its minutest details, the syntax of the 
Spanish, like that of every other tongue, contains a great 
many niceties that cannot be formulated in general, compre¬ 
hensive statements, but which must be learned by constant 
intercourse with those who speak the language and by care¬ 
ful study of the works of the best writers. The student 
must have already observed that there is no fixed rule for 
the arrangement of words, especially as regards the relative 
position of the verb and its subject. In case of doubt, he 
may follow the English order; that is, place the subject 
before the verb in affirmative and in negative sentences, and 

For notice of copyright, see page immediately following the title page 
§27 





2 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§27 


after the verb in interrogative sentences. The placing of 
the verb before its subject in sentences belonging to the first 
and second of the three classes just mentioned is considered 
more elegant than the reverse order, and adds force and 
vividness to the phrase: it is, however, rather formal, and, 
for this reason, almost exclusively restricted to. high litera¬ 
ture, especially to narrative and descriptive style. 


POSITION OP THE ADJECTIVE 

2. Restrictive Adjectives. —The articles and cardinal 
numerals, as well as other adjectives of quantity, such as 
mucho, much , pocos, few, are placed before the substan¬ 
tives they modify. As a rule, tueno, good , and malo, bad , 
when in the singular, are also placed before their substan¬ 
tives, although the reverse order is not uncommon, and is 
grammatically equally proper. 

el hombre; la mujer 
un recibo; una carta 
cuatro pesos; setenta anos 
mucha riqueza; muchos gastos 
poco credito; pocas palabras 
demasiados competidores 
una buena casa; un buen ciuda 
"dano 

3. The ordinal numerals may either precede or follow 
their respective substantives. When, however, they are 
used as parts of proper names or employed without the 
definite article in quoting the divisions of a work, such as 
chapters or books, their place is after the modified substan¬ 
tives. A cardinal taking the place of an ordinal should 
follow the substantive it modifies. (See Part 6, Ordinal 
Numerals.) 


the man; the woman 
a receipt; a letter 
four dollars; seventy years 
much wealth; many expenses 
little credit; few words 
too many competitors 
a good house; a good citizen 


el segundo siglo de nuestra eral 
el siglo segundo de nuestra era] 
el capitulo tercero del Apocalipsis 1 
el tercer capitulo del Apocalipsis / 
Vease Apocalipsis, capitulo trece, 
verslculo quinto. 


the second century of our era 

the third chapter of Revelation 

See Revelation, chapter thirteen, 
verse five. 





27 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


3 


Carlos Quinto; Pio Nono 

el siglo veinte 

el dia catorce de este mes 


Charles the Fifth; Pius the Ninth 

the twentieth century 

the fourteenth day of this month 


For the position of demonstrative adjectives, see Part 5; 
for that of possessive adjectives, Part 6. 

4. Restrictive adjectives not included in the two prece¬ 
ding articles generally follow their respective substantives. 


un hombre rico 
una mujer bonita 
comerciantes comisionistas 
las guerras civiles de los paises 
hispano-americanos 


a rich man 
a pretty woman 
commission merchants 
the civil wars of the Spanish- 
American countries 


O. Coordinating Adjectives. —A coordinating adjec¬ 
tive, that is, one which, not being restrictive, serves to 
describe a state or condition, or to call attention to a charac¬ 
teristic or well-known property of the thing denoted by a 
substantive, is ordinarily placed before that substantive, as 


in English. 

la blanca nieve 
el repugnante caiman 
las anchas bocas del Nilo 
el inimitable Shakespeare 
el odioso y despreciable Arnold 
las encantadoras ilusiones de la 
inexpert a juventud 
mi desgraciado padre 
mi querido amigo 
muy estimado sefior 
su obediente servidor 


the white snow 
the repulsive alligator 
the wide mouth of the Nile 
the inimitable Shakespeare 
the hateful and despicable Arnold 
the charming illusions of inex¬ 
perienced youth 
my unfortunate father 
my dear friend 
most esteemed sir 
your obedient servant 


6. Exceptions to tlie Foregoing Rules. — A restrictive 
adjective is often, especially in poetry and in elevated style, 
placed before its substantive, in order either to emphasize or 
lay stress on the quality it denotes, or simply to make the 
sentence more euphonious. 


los grandes hombres de nuestros 
dias 

cubierto de cultivados campos 
una hermosa mujer 


the great men of our days 

covered with cultivated fields 
a handsome woman 






4 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


27 


7. An adjective phrase consisting of an adjective and the 
exclamatory adverb que, what , or cuan, how , should pre¬ 
cede the substantive it modifies. 


i Que bello edificio! 

/Cuan infame conducta! 
i Que valerosos soldados! 


How beautiful a building! {or, 
What a beautiful building!) 
How infamous a conduct! 

What brave soldiers! 


The adjective modifying a substantive preceded by the 
exclamatory quf may be placed after the substantive by 
introducing the adverb tan before it. Thus, the following 
two phrases have, respectively, the same meanings as the 
first and the third phrase given above. 

jQue edificio tan bello! 
iQue soldados tan valerosos! 

Cudn is better adapted to elevated style than qui , and is 
preferable when the verb is understood. 

jAy! jcuan voluble es la Fortuna! I Alas! how fickle is Fortune! how 
jcuan enganadora! | deceitful! 


8. An adjective modified by an adverb usually follows 
its substantive. This rule applies also to the comparative 
degree of adjectives, in which the adverb m&s is implied. 


Tengo una buena casa. 

Tengo una casa muy buena. 
Tengo una casa mas buena (or, 
mejor) que la suya. 


I have a good house. 

I have a very good house. 

I have a better house than yours, 


9. Some adjectives have different meanings according to 
whether they precede or follow their respective substantives. 
Thus, un hombre pobre means a poor man , while un pobre 
hombre means an insignificant man, a poor devil. Likewise, 
un hombre bueno means a good man, while un buen hombre 
is a somewhat contemptuous expression meaning a harmless 
man , a harmless fellow. 




27 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


5 


POSITION OF THE ADVERB 

10. No.—This adverb immediately precedes the verb it 
modifies, unless the latter is accompanied by a pronominal 
case, which should be placed between no and the verb. 

No tenemos dinero. I We have not any money. 

Yo no escribi esa carta. j I did not write that letter. 

El doctor Alvarez no nos recibio. Doctor Alvarez did not receive us. 

11. The same order is followed with compound tenses. 

No he estado en Bolivia. I I have not been in Bolivia. 

No lo hemos visto hoy. | We have not seen him today. 


It should be borne in mind that, with a few comparatively 
rare exceptions, no word can be placed between a time form 
of the auxiliary haber and the participle in compound tenses. 
This rule forms a very important difference between Spanish 
and English syntax, and should be carefully observed. 

$Ha terminado listed sus estu- Have you finished your studies 
dios ya? already? 

El vapor no ha llegado todavia. | The steamer has not yet arrived. 


12. In the compound gerund and infinitive, their subject, 
or a modifying adverb or adverbial phrase may be placed 
between the auxiliary and the participle. This, however, 
never applies to no , which in no case should follow either 
a tense or a verbal derivative, either in simple or in 
compound forms. 


Habiendo los empleados rehu- 
sado trabajar, se les despidio. 

Habiendo asi cumplido nuestra 
mision, regresamos a la ciudad. 

No lo aguardamos por habemos 
listed escrito que quiza no 
vendria. 


The employes having refused to 
work, they were dismissed. 

Having thus accomplished our 
mission, we returned to the city. 

We did not wait for you, on 
account of your having written 
to us that perhaps you would 
not come. 



6 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§27 


13. Another important difference between the two lan¬ 
guages is that Spanish has no words corresponding to the 
partitives any and some. Thus, the sentence Have you any 
money? is rendered by #Tiene us ted dinero? which literally 
means Have you money? Likewise, I have not any money , is 
rendered by Yo no tengo dinero , which literally means I have 
not money. Furthermore, the negative adjective no, which in 
English is used as the equivalent of the adjective phrase 
not any , has no Spanish equivalent. 


14. As stated elsewhere, a negative adverb other than 
no, and in general, any negative word, may be placed either 
before or after the verb: if placed after the verb, the latter 
should be preceded by no; if placed before the verb, no 
should be omitted. 


Nunca lo he visto. 

No lo he visto nunca. 

Tampoco debemos fiarle a ese 
hombre. 

No debemos tampoco fiarle k ese 
hombre. 

A nadie encontr&mos en el ca- 
mino. 

No encontr&mos k nadie en el 
camino. 


I have never seen him. 

We must not trust that man 
either. 


We did not meet any one on the 
road. 


15. Other Adverbs.— An adverb modifying an adjec¬ 
tive or another adverb should precede the modified word, 
and the phrase thus formed should follow the verb. 


La navegacion del Cauca es muy 
. peligrosa. 

Hable mas despacio, pues yo he 
practicado muy poco el espa- 
nol, y aun me es algo dificil 
entenderlo. 


The navigation of the Cauca is 
very dangerous. 

Speak more slowly, for I have 
practiced Spanish very little, 
and it is still rather difficult for 
me to understand it. 


16. An adverb (no excepted) modifying a verb usually 
follows the verb, if the latter follows its subject or if the 
subject is not expressed. When the subject follows, the 




27 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


7 


adverb generally precedes the verb. As a rule, adverbs of 
time and demonstrative adverbs precede the verb, which in 


its turn precedes the subject, 
is equally proper. 

Nosotros vivimos aqui. 

Aqui viven unas senoras chilenas. 
El congreso no se ha reunido to- 

davia. 

Todavia no se ha reunido el 
congreso. 

Yo ire manana a verlo. 1 

Manana ire a verlo. 


The reverse order, however, 

We live here. 

Here live some Chilian ladies. 
Congress has not yet met. 

I will go to see you tomorrow. 


17. No in Elliptical Expressions. — The position of 
no in expressions in which the verb is understood is the same 
as its position in the full sentences for which such elliptical 
expressions are substitutes. This is plainly illustrated by 
the following sets of examples, the first example in each set 
giving the full form, with the verb expressed; and the 
second, the elliptical form, with the verb understood: 


I Mi cuarto no es muy comodo. 
«;Es comodo su cuarto? — No 
muy comodo. 

'Mi hermano fue al teatro, pero 
VO no fui. 

< 

^Fueron ustedes al teatro? —Mi 
hermano fue, pero yo no. 

No comamos aqui. 

Comamos ahora. —Si, pero no 
aqui. 

En Nueva-Orleans vendi algu- 
nos sombreros de Panama, pero 
aqui no he vendido ningunos. 

< ^Ha vendido usted muchos 
sombreros aqui? — Aqui no, 
pero en Nueva-Orleans vendi 
muchos. 

Todavia no salgajnos, que es- 
ta lloviendo. 

Salgamos, pues. — Todavia no. , 


1 My room is not very comfortable. 

1 Is your room comfortable? —Not 

[ very comfortable. 

My brother went to the theater, 
but I did not go. 

Did you go to the theater? —My 
brother went, but I did not. 

Let us not dine here. 

Let us dine now. —Yes, but not 
here. ’ 

In New Orleans I ^ sold some 
Panama hats, but here I have 
not sold any. 

Have you sold many hats here? 
— Not here, but in New 

. Orleans I sold many. 

( Let us not go out yet, for it is 
raining. 

Let us go out, then. — Not yet. 










8 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


27 


POSITION OF PRONOMINAL CASES 

Note. —In what follows, reference is made only to the accusative 
and the dative case. 


18. With the Imperative and With Verbal Deriva¬ 
tives. —As stated in Part 2, a pronominal case should follow 
and form a word with the imperative, the infinitive, and the 
gerund. This rule, however, does not apply when the 
imperative is introduced by que or is used negatively; that is, 
when it has the same form as the subjunctive. 


Que lo traigan. 

Que os sea propicia la fortuna. 
No les mande la cuenta a esos 
senores antes de manana. 

No me liable mas de ese negocio. 

Nunca nos envie dinero sino en 
carta certificada. 


Let them bring it. 

May fortune be propitious to you. 

Do not send the bill to those 
gentlemen before tomorrow. 

Do not talk to me any more about 
that business. 

Never send money to us except in 
a registered letter. 


19. In the compound imperative, infinitive, and gerund, 
the pronominal ease should be joined to the auxiliary. 


Thigame ensillada la mula antes 
de las ocho.* 

Estoy seguro de haber\n. visto en 
el teatro anoche. 

No habiindome hal/ado presente, 
no se los pormenores del corn- 
bate. 


Have my mule saddled before 
eight o’clock. 

1 am sure of having seen her at 
the theater last night. 

Not having been present, I do not 
know the details of the battle. 


20. It is a general rule that in no compound forms, 
whether of tenses or verbal derivatives, should the pro¬ 
nominal case be placed after the participle. For the purposes 
of syntax, the auxiliary in a compound form is treated as the 
verb, and what is said concerning the order of words with 
regard to the verb refers to the auxiliary, not to the whole 
compound form taken as one word. The only exception to 
this principle occurs when the auxiliary is understood before 


*See Part 8, Tenses of the Imperative Mode. 





§27 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


9 


the participle, as is often the case when it is desired to avoid 
repetition. 


Estoy seguro de haberla visto en 
el teatro anoche, y hablddo\Q 
en su palco. 

Habiendole explicado nuestro ne- 
gocio, y ensenado\e algunas de 
nuestras muestras, me despedi 
de el hasta el dla siguiente. 


I am sure of having seen her at 
the theater last evening, and 
spoken to her in her box. 

Having explained our business to 
him and shown him some of 
our samples, I took leave of him 
until the following day. 


21. The foregoing rules are never deviated from in 
prose, but in poetry they sometimes are, such expressions as 
me da , le habla , being employed instead of dame, give me, 
bablale, speak to him , respectively. Another poetical license 
that is frequently made use of is to replace the r of an infini¬ 
tive by l before a pronominal case beginning with /.* vella 
for verla, to see her; hablalle for liablarle, to speak to him. 
In former times, this substitution was common in prose as 
well as in poetry. 


22. With the Subjunctive.—A pronominal case refer¬ 
ring to a verb in the subjunctive mode should always pre¬ 
cede the verb. There is no exception to this rule. 


Es necesario que les escribanios 
hoy mismo. 

No hallamos alii & nadie que la 
conociese. 

Lo que le digo es un hecho, por 
extrano que le parezca. 


It is necessary that we write to 
them this very day. 

We did not find there anybody 
who knew her. 

What I tell you is a fact, however 
strange it may seem to you. 


23. With the Indicative. —Generally, a pronominal 
case accompanying a verb in the indicative precedes the 
verb. This order is always correct, even in the cases to be 
presently specified, in which the reverse order is permissible. 

Me prometib que nos enviarta He promised me that he would 
su retrato y el de su esposa. send us his picture and that of 

his wife. 



10 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


27 


Su carta de usted la recibi * hace 
una semana, pero no la habia 
contestado por haber estado en- 
fermo. 


I received your letter a week ago, 
but had not answered it because 
I have been ill. 


24. In the forms of construction enumerated below, the 
pronominal case may be placed after the verb. Although, 
as pointed out in the preceding article, the placing of it 
before the verb is equally proper, the reverse order is much 
more elegant and forcible, and therefore better adapted to 
elevated style. 

1. When the verb is the first word in the sentence. 


Rogamosle que aguardase hasta 
el dia siguiente. 

Dijome que tendria mucho gusto 
en recibir a usted. 

OdiabanSG entre si las sectas cris- 
tianas con un furor que asom- 
braba a los paganos. 

Vendense alii articulos de todas 
clases, desde alfileres ypanuelos 
hasta locomotoras y arneses. 

HabiaXo enviado Castro como re- 
presentante de Venezuela. 

//ase dicho a menudo que, con 
los progresos de la electricidad, 
el vapor sera pronto cosa del 
pasado. 

Quisolo asi mi desgraciada es- 
trella. 


We requested him to wait until 
the following day. 

He told me that he would be very 
glad to receive you. 

The Christian sects hated one 
another with a frenzy that as¬ 
tonished the Pagans. 

Articles of all kinds are sold there, 
from pins and handkerchiefs up 
to locomotives and harnesses. 

Castro had sent him as Venez¬ 
uela’s representative. 

It has often been said that, with 
the progress of electricity, steam 
will soon be a thing of the past. 

My unlucky star willed it so. 


2. After the conjunctions 6, or; pero, mas, but; and y, 
and. This rule is really but a special case of the preceding, 
since these conjunctions are independent of the sentences 
they connect, and so whatever word follows them may be 
regarded as the first word in the sentence they introduce. 


Los conquistadores rodearon a los 
indios indefensos, y mataronlos 
sin piedad. 


The conquerors surrounded the 
defenseless Indians, and killed 
them without pity. 


*See Part 4, The Accusative and the Accusative Case. 






§27 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


11 


Esperabamos que el senor Pena 
accederia a nuestra propuesta; 
mas fuel 10 s imposible per- 
suadirle. 

Los historiadores protestantes, 6 
han negado estos hechos, 6 
hati\ os desfigurado considera- 
blemente al narrarlos. 

Los liberales debian abstenerse 
de expresar publicamente sus 
opiniones, u obligabalos el go- 
bierno a salir del pais. 


We expected that Mr. Pena would 
agree to our proposition; but it 
was impossible for us to per¬ 
suade him. 

Protestant historians have either 
denied these facts, or have dis¬ 
torted them considerably when 
narrating them. 

The Liberals had to abstain from 
publicly expressing their opin¬ 
ions, or else the government 
compelled them to leave the 
country. 


3. When the verb is preceded by a word or phrase of an 
explanatory or parenthetical character, such as an absolute 
clause or a coordinating proposition. 


JYo habiendo hallado al adminis- I 
trador de la compania , deje le 
una esquela suplicandole que 
me concediese una entrevista. 

Dicho lo cual, retiro&e sin espe- 
rar nuestra respuesta. 

Antique Clemenctn tenia una alia 
idea del “Don Quijote , ” criti- 
colo con imparcialidad, y aun 
con severidad. 

El famoso orador, a quien el audi- 
torio aguardaba con impaciencia, 
presentbae, al fin en la tribuna. 


Not having found the manager of 
the company, I left a note re¬ 
questing him to grant me an 
interview. 

Having said which, he withdrew 
without waiting for our answer. 

Although Clemencin had a high 
opinion of “Don Quixote,” he 
criticized it with impartiality, 
and even with severity. 

The famous orator, for whom the 
audience was impatiently wait¬ 
ing, appeared at last on the 
tribune. 


25. Verbs Governing an Infinitive or a Gerund. 

When an infinitive or a gerund serves as accusative to another 
verb, or is the object of a preposition governed by the verb, 
a pronominal case referring to the infinitive or the gerund 
may be treated either as belonging with the verbal derivative 
to which it really refers, or with the governing verb. The 
arrangement of words in such combinations is similar to that 
in the progressive form referred to in Part 9 in connection 
with the use of the gerund. It should be observed, how¬ 
ever, that in the majority of cases it is preferable to attach 





12 SPANISH GRAMMAR §27 

the pronominal case to the verbal derivative to which it 
directly refers. 


Deseamos hablarfe. 1 

Le deseamos hablar. J 

Quisiera hacer le tina pregunta. ] 
Le quisiera hacer una pregunta.] 
Siento no poder agradar/^, ca- 
ballero. 

Siento no poder/^ agradar, Ca¬ 
ballero. 

iHa comprado usted los billetes 
ya? —No, pero ahora mismo voy 
a comprar/<?5 {or, ahora mismo 
los voy a comprar). 

No podremos mandarle el vo-' 
lante antes de un mes, por 
haber tenido que mandar ha- 
cer lo a proposito. 

No podremos mandarle el vo- 
lante antes de un mes, por 
haber tenido que mandar lo 
hacer a proposito. 

No podremos mandarle el vo- 
lante antes de un mes, por 
haber/o tenido que mandar 
hacer a proposito. 


We wish to speak to him. 

I would like to ask you a question. 

I am sorry I cannot please you, 
sir. 

Have you bought the tickets al¬ 
ready?—No, but I am just now 
going to buy them. 


We shall not be able to send you 
the flywheel before a month, 
because we had to have it made 
to order. 


26. The preceding alternative construction -is not per¬ 
missible: — 

1. When the pronominal case has direct reference to the 
governing verb. 

Los oi hablando. I I heard them speaking. 

Elios no nos vieron entrar. \ They did not see us go in. 


In the first of these two examples, los is the accusative of 
oi and the subject of habla?ido. In the second, nos is the 
accusative of vieron and the subject of entrar. 

2. When the verbal derivative neither is the accusative • 
of the verb, nor is governed by the latter through a prepo¬ 
sition. 





§27 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


13 


Es necesario impedir\o. 

No me fue posible averiguarlo. 


It is necessary to prevent it. 

It was not possible for me to find 


it out. 


In the last example the dative me directly refers to fv£. 
(See Part 4, The Dative and the Dative Case.) 

3. When the infinitive of a pronominal verb serves as 
accusative to*another verb. (See Part 9, The Infinitive.) 


Nos mandaron sentar. 


i They asked us to sit down. 


27. Combination of a Pronominal Case of tbe 
First Person With One of tbe Second.— The rules laid 
down in Part 2 regarding the position of case combinations 
need some qualifications and further explanations, which 
will be given in this and the following articles. In the first 
place, a combination of two pronominal cases should, so far 
as its position relative to the verb is concerned, be treated 
as one case, and to it the same principles apply that have 
been laid down for simple cases. Under no circumstances 
should a combination of this kind be separated into its 
elements, placing some of the cases before and some after 
the verb. 

When one pronominal case of the first person occurs in 
combination with one of the second, the latter should in all 
cases precede the former; that is, the combinations should 
take the forms te me , te nos , os me , os nos. Which of the two 
cases is accusative and which dative, is determined by the 
context or the circumstances, except in reflexive construc¬ 
tions, in which the accusative represents the same thing 
(persons included) as the subject. 

iPorque no te nos presentaste? I Why didst thou not present thy¬ 
self to us? 

(Reflexive construction: te , accusative; nos , dative.) 

Te me entregue, oh Senor, en I I gave myself up to thee, O Lord, 
cuerpo y alma. I in body and soul. 


(Reflexive construction: te, dative; me, accusative.) 


14 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§27 


Puesto que te me recomendaron, 
hare por ti cuanto pueda. 


Since they recommended you to 
me, I will do for you all I can. 


(Non-reflexive construction: te, accusative; me, dative.) 


Te me han recomendado, y asi 
aguardo que hagas por mi 
cuanto puedas. 


They have recommended me to 
you, and so I hope you will do 
for me all you can. 


(Non-reflexive construction: me, accusative; te, dative.) 


No te me acerques tanto. | Do not come so near me ( literally, 

Do not approach yourself so 
near to me). 

(Reflexive construction: te, accusative, or simply the sign of pro- 
nominality; me, dative.) 


No te me pude acercar {or, No 
pude acerckrteme). 


I could not go near you. 


(Reflexive construction: me, accusative or sign of pronominality; te, 
dative.) 

Os me enviaron para que os en- They sent you to me that I might 
senase el arte de la guerra. teach you the art of war. 


(Non-reflexive construction: os, accusative; me, dative.) 


28. The preceding combinations, although perfectly 
proper, often sound harsh, and, what is worse, may in some 
cases give rise to ambiguity. It is, as a rule, preferable to 
replace the dative case by an equivalent prepositional phrase 
placed after the verb. 

iPorque no te presentaste a nosotros? 

Me entregue a ti, oh Senor, en cuerpo y alma. 

Puesto que te recomendaron a mi, hare por ti cuanto pueda. 

Me han recomendado a ti, y asi aguardo que hagas por mi cuanto 
puedas. 

No te acerques tanto a mi. 

No me pude acercar a ti {or. No pude acercar;/z<? a ti). 

Os enviaron a mi, para que os ensenase el arte de la guerra. 






27 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


15 


29. Combination of a Pronominal Case of tbe 
Third Person With One of Either the First or the 
Second.— As an introductory rule, the case se should always 
precede any other case with which it forms a combination. 
This rule has absolutely no exception and applies whatever 
the functions of se may be; that is, whether se is used as a 
true pronominal case, or as a part of a pronominal verb, or 
indefinitely in quasi-reflexive constructions. 


El muchacho trajo un periodico 
y se lo dio al senor Ulloa. 

Se me ha dicho que la cosecha de 
tabaco sera muy escasa este ano. 

El dueno de las minas vino a 
ofrecersewos muy bondadosa- 
mente. 

Se les ha ordenado que no ad- 
mitan a nadie que no lleve un 
permiso firmado por el coronel. 


The boy brought a newspaper, 
and gave it to Mr. Ulloa. 

I have been told that the tobacco 
crop will be very scarce this year. 

The owner of the mines came to 
offer himself to us very kindly. 

They have been ordered not to 
admit any one who does not 
carry a permit signed by the 
colonel. 


30. When an accusative case of the third person com¬ 
bines with a dative of the first or of the second, the dative 
should precede the accusative. 


El mes pasado escribi una carta a 
Hernandez y Tamayo, quienes 
no me la contestaron. 

Tan pronto como reciba el informe 
de los agrimensores, te lo man- 
dare. 

En cuanto a las sierras circulares, 
no pudimos conseguir que los 
fabricantes nos las vendieran 
por el precio que esperabamos. 

El saco era tan pequeno, que no 
pude poner melo. 

Esperame, mientras voy por mis 
guantes. —No te /ospongas, que 
afuera hace mucho calor. 


Last month I wrote a letter to 
Hernandez and Tamayo, who 
did not answer it (to me). 

As soon as I receive the report of 
the surveyors, I will send it to 
you. 

As for the circular saws, we could 
not get the makers to sell them 
to us for the price we expected. 

The coat was so small, that I 
could not put it on. 

Wait for me while I go after my 
gloves. —Do not put them on, 
for it is very warm outside. 


31. When a reflexive accusative case of the first or of 
the second person combines with a dative of the third, the 
accusative should precede the dative. 




16 SPANISH GRAMMAR §27 

I offered myself to him. 

We presented ourselves to them. 
Ye surrendered (yourselves) to 
them. 

In all tKese cases the dative may be replaced by an 
equivalent prepositional phrase following the verb. 

Me ofreci a H (or, a ella). — Nos present&mos a ellos (or, d ellas).— 
Os entregasteis a ellos (or, a ellas). 

32. Except when the accusative of the first or of the 
second person is reflexive, as in the last article, a dative 
case of the third person is seldom combined with it, the 
dative relation being then preferably expressed by means of 
a prepositional phrase. 

Me llevaron a H. | They took me to him. 

El doctor Ospina nos envio a ellas. | Doctor Ospina sent us to them. 

Mi hermano te presentara a ella. My brother will present you to her. 


Me le ofreci. 

Nos les presentamos. 
Os les entregasteis. 


CONCORD OR AGREEMENT 


CONCORD OF THE ADJECTIVE 

33. Adjective Referring to One Substantive. 
When an adjective modifies one substantive, either predi- 
catively or otherwise, it should agree with it in number, and 
if the adjective has both a masculine and a feminine form, it 
should agree with the substantive in gender also. This rule 
is, in fact, nothing but a different statement of the very 
definitions of number and gender as applied to adjectives. 
(See Part 2.) 

34. Adjective Modifying and Preceding Several 
Substantives. —When several substantives are modified by 
one adjective preceding them, the adjective should generally 
agree with the first substantive in both gender and number. 

la ignorancia y engreimiento de I the ignorance and conceit of the 
los maestros de escuela | school teachers 





§27 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


17 


su gran virtud y conocimientos his great virtue and knowledge 
estos profnndos escritos y these profound writings and 
teoria \ theory 

If the only modifier is the definite article, it is preferable 
to repeat it before each of the modified substantives. 

la ignorancia y el engreimiento de los maestros de escuela. 

35. When an adjective following either the definite 
article or a possessive is intended as a modifier of only the 
first of several substantives following it, the article or the 
possessive should be repeated before the other substantives, 
in order to avoid ambiguity. 

su gran virtud y sus conocimien- I his great virtue and his knowl- 
tos | edge 

By repeating the possessive su in this phrase, it is made 
clear that the adjective gran is intended as a modifier of 
virtud only, not of conocimientos. 


36. The adjectives mismo, same; dicho, said; suso- 
dieho, aforesaid; referido, referred to above; mencionado, 
above-mentioned , and others of like import, form an exception 
to the general rule stated in Art. 34. When preceded by 
the definite article and modifying several substantives that 
follow, both the article and the adjectives should be placed 
in the plural, even if the first of the modified substantives 
is singular. 


Notifiquese nuestra decision a 
los mencionados esposo y 
esposa. 

Los diclios impresor y escritora 
compareceran ante el juez el dla 
veinte del presente mes. 

Otorgase el privilegio a los su- 
sodielios Pedro Carvajal y 
Cipriano Parra. 


Let our decision be communicated 
to the above-mentioned hus¬ 
band and wife. 

Said printer and authoress shall 
appear before the judge on the 
twentieth day of the present 
month. 

The privilege is (hereby) granted 
to the aforesaid Peter Carvajal 
and Cipriano Parra. 



18 SPANISH GRAMMAR §27 


With dichos, the article may be either employed or not, 
at pleasure. 

Dichos impresor y escritora compareceran ante el juez el dla 
veinte del presente mes. 

37. A special rule similar to that given in the last article 
applies to adjectives modifying and preceding proper nouns, 
or common nouns denoting human beings. 


las desgraciadas Carmen y 
Maria 

“sus venerables padre y a- 
buelo” 

“los magnanimos Isabel y 
Fernando" 

“los oprimidos Egipto y Pa¬ 
les tina" 

los jovenes rey y reina 


the unfortunate Carmen and 
Mary 

“his venerable father and grand¬ 
father” 

“the magnanimous Isabel and 
Ferdinand” 

“the oppressed Egypt and Pal¬ 
estine’ ’ 

the young king and queen 


This rule does not apply when the substantives following 
the modifying adjective denote the same person. 

ml amado padre y amigo my beloved father and friend 

mis amadou, padre y amigo my beloved father and my beloved 

friend 


The singular form of the adjectives in the first of these 
two phrases indicates that the two substantives following are 
but different names applied to the same person; while the 
plural form in the second phrase shows that the two sub¬ 
stantives are names applied to two different persons. 


38. In Spanish, as in English, great care should be 
exercised so to employ the article as to avoid ambiguity. 


Las lenguas de Europa y la India 
est&n intimamente relacionadas 
entre si. 


The languages of Europe and 
India are intimately related to 
one another. 


From the form of this sentence, it would be difficult to tell 
whether the writer wishes to state that the languages of 
Europe are intimately related to those of India, or that the 
languages of Europe, like those of India, are closely related 





§27 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


19 


to one another; or, finally, that the language of Europe is 
closely related to that of India. The following sentence, 
although not so obscure as the one just considered, is yet 
ambiguous: 

Las lenguas de Europa y las de 
la India estan intimamente rela- 
cionadas entre si. 


The languages of Europe and 
those of India are intimately 
related to one another. 


It is not clear whether the idea to be conveyed by this 
sentence is that the languages of Europe are related to those 
of India, or that the languages of Europe as well as those of 
India are related to one another. 

The following sentences, on the contrary, are free from 
all ambiguity: 


Las lenguas de Europa estan inti¬ 
mamente relacionadas con las 
de la India. 

Las lenguas de Europa, como las 
de la India, estdn intimamente 
relacionadas entre si. 


The languages of Europe are inti¬ 
mately related to those of India. 

The languages of Europe, like 
those of India, are intimately re¬ 
lated to one another. 


39. Two Adjectives Modifying and Following a 
Plural Substantive.— When two adjectives modify and 
follow a plural substantive, they should be placed in the 
singular number if the substantives denote two objects, and 
one of the adjectives refers to one of the objects, and the 
other adjective to the other object. Instead of this construc¬ 
tion, the substantive may be made singular, and the substan¬ 
tivized article introduced before the second adjective. 

los idiomas espanol y f ranees 
el idioma espanol y el tran¬ 
ces 

los siglos segundo y tercero 
el siglo segundo y el terce¬ 
ro 

los poderes temporal y espi- 
ritual 

el poder temporal y el espi- 
ritual 


the Spanish and the French lan¬ 
guage 

the second and the third century 

the temporal and the spiritual 
power 





20 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§27 


Should the adjectives in the first of each of these sets of 
phrases be made plural, the implication would be that each 
adjective referred to several of the objects named by the 
substantive. 


los dialectos espanoles y franceses 


the Spanish and the French dia 
lects ( that is, the Spanish dia¬ 
lects and the French dialects) 


40. Adjective Modifying and Following Several 
Substantives. —When several singular substantives are 
modified by an adjective following them, the adjective is 
placed in the plural number; as to gender, that of the adjec¬ 
tive should be the same as that of the substantives, if 
the latter are all of the same gender; otherwise, either the 
masculine form of the adjective may be used, or the adjec¬ 
tive may be made to agree in gender with the substantive 
immediately preceding it. If, however, the substantives 
denote human beings or other animals, or the adjective is 
used predicatively, the masculine plural form should be used, 
unless all the substantives are feminine. 


Es hombre de prestigio e influen- 
cia conocidas (or, conocidos). 

Tengo un hijo y una hija solteros 
(not, solteras ). 

El domador estaba en la jaula con 
un tigre y una hiena hambrien- 
to s (not, hambrientas ). 

Su prestigio e influencia son bien 
conocidos (not, conocidas). 


\ He is a man of known prestige 
and influence. 

I have an unmarried son and an 
unmarried daughter. 

The tamer was in the cage with a 
hungry tiger and hyena. 

His prestige and influence are 
well known. 


41. When an adjective modifies and follows several 
plural substantives, or substantives of different numbers, it 
should be plural. As to gender, the masculine form of the 
adjective may always be used (except, of course, when all 
the substantives are feminine), although some writers prefer 
to make the adjective agree in gender with the last substan¬ 
tive, if the latter is plural. This distinction, however, only 
serves to multiply rules and exceptions, and, although it is 
of importance to acquaint the student with it, he is not 




27 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


21 


advised to adopt it, but follow in all cases the rule of using 
the masculine form of the adjective whenever the modified 
substantives are of different genders. 


Es hombre de juicio y virtudes 
bien conocidos (or, conocidsts). 

Tuvimos que hacer uso de botes y 
canoas tnalisimos (or, malt- 
iimas). 


He is a man of well-known judg¬ 
ment and virtues. 

We had to make use of exceed¬ 
ingly bad boats and canoes. 


42. Adjectives Relating to Substantives Denoting 
Titles.— A predicate adjective used with reference to a sub¬ 
stantive denoting a title should be masculine or feminine 
according as the person bearing the title is a man or a 
woman, whatever the gender of the title itself may be. 
Adjectives forming part of, or immediately joined to, the 
title should agree in gender with the latter, irrespectively of 
the sex of the person referred to. 


Su Majestad el rey esta ocupado. 

Su Majestad la reina esta ocu- 
pado. 

Su Alteza se siente indispuesto. 

Su Alteza se siente indispuesto . 

“Su Alteza Ilustrisimo ha sido 
presentado a su Majestad Cato- 
lico , que estaba muy deseoso 
de verle. ” 


His Majesty the king is busy. 

Her Majesty the queen is busy. 

His Highness feels indisposed. 

Her Highness feels indisposed. 

“His Most Illustrious Highness 
has been presented to his Cath¬ 
olic Majesty, who was very 
desirous to see him.” 


43. Abnormal Use of Un, Medio, and Mismo. — The 
masculine form of these adjectives is sometimes used before 
the proper names of cities, although such names are prop¬ 
erly feminine; and also before feminine names of countries. 
In this anomalous construction, the noun modified by one 
of these adjectives loses its ordinary gender and becomes 
masculine, requiring therefore the masculine form of other 
adjectives referring to it. 


“iQuien creeria que en un Sego¬ 
via no se encuentra una buena 
posada?” 

Medio Paris estaba lleno de ba- 

rricadas. 


“Who would believe that in a city 
like Segovia not one good inn 
can be found?” 

Half Paris was filled with barri¬ 
cades. 





22 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§27 

El mismo Cartago fue des- | Carthage itself was destroyed by 
truido por los romanos. | the Romans. 

When, however, mismo is preceded by the definite article, 
the feminine form is preferable to the masculine. 

Ea mismsk Cartago fue des triads por los romanos. 

44. It was explained in Part 10, in connection with the 
use of mismo , that this word is adverbially employed as a 
modifier of demonstrative adverbs, such as aqui, here; lioy, 
today. In the same manner it can modify an adverbial phrase 
consisting of the preposition en and a noun denoting place or 
locality. In such a case, however, mismo may be used 
adjectively in combination with the definite article, the phrase 
thus formed being placed between en and its object, and 
mismo being either made to agree with the gender of that 
object or used in the masculine form, as in Art. 43. 

En Espana mismo se habla mal 
espanol. 

En la mismsk Espana se habla I In Spain itself {or, Even in Spain), 
mal espanol. people speak poor Spanish. 

En el mismo Espafia se habla 
mal espanol. 


CONCORD OF THE VERB 

45. Introductory Remark.— In so far as grammatical 
number is concerned, the rules given for the verb in the 
articles that follow apply to adjectives and pronominal cases as 
well; that is, all substantives or combinations of substantives 
that require the plural form of the verb, require likewise the 
plural form of adjectives modifying them and of pronominal 
cases representing them in discourse. 

46. Verb Following: Several Subjects Connected 
by Y. — When a verb is preceded by two or more subjects 
of whatever number connected by the conjunction y, and, 
expressed or understood, it should be placed in the plural 
form, unless the last of the subjects is a singular or neuter 




27 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


23 


substantive recapitulating or collectively representing all 
the others, in which case the verb should be singular. 


El desaseo de la gente y la insalu- 
bridad natural del clima liaeen 
que las epidemias sean all! de- 
sastrosisimas. 

El desaseo de la gente, la hume- 
dad de la atmosfera, la falta de 
ventilacion en las easas — todo 
contribute a la insalubridad 
de aquella poblacion. 


The uncleanliness of the people 
and the natural unhealthfulness 
of the climate cause epidemics 
there to be most disastrous. 

The uncleanliness of the people, 
the dampness of the atmos¬ 
phere, the lack of ventilation in 
the houses—everything contrib¬ 
utes to the unhealthfulness of 
that town. 


47. When a substantive is a synonym or a slight variant 
of another that immediately precedes it, the conjunction y 
neither is nor can be understood between the two, and the 
verb, which really refers to only one thing, should be singular. 


El progreso , el desarrollo es im- I Progress, development is impos- 
posible en condiciones tan im- I sible in conditions so unpro- 
propicias. ! pitious. 

48. Collective Substantives. —It was stated in Part 2 
that, in general, a collective substantive is for the purposes 
of syntax treated as a singular substantive. The following 
are exceptions to this rule: 


1. If the collective substantive is indeterminate; that is, if 
it does not refer to any special kind of things, and if, besides, 
it does not occur in the same proposition as the verb, the 
latter may be, and usually is, put in the plural number. 


El pueblo escucho atentamente, 
y cuando el orador acabo de 
hablar, le aplaudieron en- 
tusiasmados. 


The people listened attentively, 
and when the orator finished 
speaking, they applauded him 
with enthusiasm. 


Here escucho is placed in the singular, in accordance with 
the rule stated in Part 2, while aplaudieron and entusiasmados 
are placed in the plural in accordance with the above-men¬ 
tioned exception. 





24 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


27 


In the following example, the plural form of the verb 
would be inadmissible, as the subject denotes a special kind 
of men, and is, therefore, not indeterminate. 


La division del general Miranda 
habla combatido ocho horas, y 
vieudose eseasa de pertreeho, 
tuvo que retirarse. 


General Miranda’s division had 
fought for eight hours, and, 
being short of ammunition, had 
to retreat. 


2. A collective substantive followed by a prepositional 
phrase consisting of de and a plural object requires the plural 
form of the verb. 


Multitud de personas nos 
lian escrito felicitandonos por 
el buen resultado de las nego- 
ciaciones. 

Un gran numero de agentes 
contestaron el anuncio. 

La mitad de los sol dados 
quedaron en el carnpo de 
batalla, muertos 6 fieri do*. 


A great many persons have writ¬ 
ten congratulating us on the 
good result of the negotiations. 

A great number of agents an¬ 
swered the advertisement. 

Half of the soldiers remained on 
the battle field, either dead or 
wounded. 


3. Collective numerals, even if not followed by a prepo¬ 
sitional phrase with de , usually take the plural form of the 
verb. This rule applies also to the substantives part e, part, 
and resto, rest, remainder , when they are used to represent 
several things collectively. 

Los platanos que usted nos envio 
el mes pasado no pudimos ven- 
derlos por el precio que usted 
aguardaba. La mitad lle- 
garon podridos ; el resto 
estaban demasiado maduros, 
y tuvimos que venderlos in- 
mediatamente, perdiendo como 
veinticinco por ciento. 

49. Substantives Connected by Ni. — If a verb fol¬ 
lows and refers to several substantives, each of which is 
preceded by ni, it may be either put in the plural number or 
made to agree in number with the last substantive. The 


We could not sell the bananas 
that you sent us last month for 
the price that you expected. 
Half of them arrived rotten; 
the rest were too ripe, and we 
had to sell them immediately, 
losing about twenty-five per 
cent. 





§27 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


25 


placing of the verb in the plural seems to be the more 
common practice. 

Ni su abnegacion, ni su heroismo 
ni su modestia pudieron (or, 
pudo) protegerle contra la en- 
vidia de sus numerosos rivales. 

Creo que ni el senor Umana ni su 
hijo estan satisfecho# (or, 

'esta satisfecho ) con el avaluo 
de los peritos. 

50. The same rule applies when the verb preceded by 
no is placed before the subject substantives. 

No pudieron (or, pudo) protegerle contra la envidia de sus 
numerosos rivales ni su abnegacion, ni su heroismo, etc. 

But, if the verb preceded by no is placed first, and 7ii is 
omitted before the first substantive, the verb should agree 
with that substantive. 


Neither his disinterestedness, nor 
his heroism, nor his unobtrusive¬ 
ness could protect him against 
the envy of his numerous rivals. 

I think that neither Mr. Umana 
nor his son is satisfied with the 
appraisement of the experts. 


No pudo su abnegacion, ni su 
heroismo ni su modestia pro¬ 
tegerle contra la envidia de sus 
numerosos rivales. 

No esta satisfecho el senor Hu¬ 
mana ni su hijo. 


His disinterestedness could not, 
nor could his heroism, nor his 
unobtrusiveness protect him 
against the envy of his numer¬ 
ous rivals. 

Mr. Umana is not satisfied, nor 
his son (either). 


51. With subjects of different persons, the first should 
always take precedence of the other two, and the second 
of the third; that is, a plural verb referring to the first and 
other person or persons should be placed in the first person; 
and a plural verb referring to the second and the third 
person, should be placed in the second person. This is a 
general rule applying to all cases requiring the plural form 
of the verb. When, however, the verb refers to subjects of 
different persons connected by ni, it is preferable to change 
the construction so as to avoid the awkward expression 
resulting from having a verb in one person refer to a sub¬ 
stantive of a different. 





26 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§27 


Carlos no estaba alii cuando la 
molestia tuvo lugar, ni yo 
tampoco. 

better 

Ni Carlos ni yo estabamos » alii I 
cuando la molestia tuvo lugar. | 

Ni tu serds nombrado, ni el 
tampoco. 

better 

Ni tu ni el sere is nombrados. 


Charles was not there when the 
quarrel took place, nor I either. 

than 

Neither Charles nor I was there 
when the quarrel took place. 

Neither you will be appointed, 
nor he either. 

than 

Neither you nor he will be ap¬ 
pointed. 


52. Substantives Connected by 0.—When two or 
more substantives are connected by the conjunction o, the 
verb may be either put in the plural number or made to 
agree with the nearest substantive. The placing of the verb 
in the plural is, however, generally preferred in all cases, 
especially if some of the substantives are plural or if the 
verb follows the substantives. 


Pedro 6 Juan ira, ( or , iran) a 
verlo manana. 

“Moviole (or, Movieronle) la 
ambicion 6 la ira.” 

O los ayudantes 6 el comandante 
en jefe deben de haber dado 
la orden. 


Either Peter or John will go to 
see you tomorrow. 

‘‘Either ambition or anger 
prompted him.” 

Either the aides or the comman¬ 
der in chief must have given 
the order. 


53. Two Substantives Connected by Con.—When a 
verb follows and refers to two substantives connected by 
con, the verb is usually put in the plural, even if the substan¬ 
tives are both singular. This construction, however, is 
rather awkward, and in all such cases it is far preferable to 
replace the preposition by the conjunction y, to which it is 
really equivalent. 

El hombre con la mujer fueron The man, with the woman, was 
sentenciados a muerte. sentenced to death. 

but, better, 

El hombre y la mujer fueron sen- The man and woman were sen¬ 
tenciados a muerte. tenced to death. 








§27 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


27 


Another way of avoiding this clumsy form of expression is 
to place the verb immediately after the first substantive, and 
the prepositional phrase formed with con and the second sub¬ 
stantive at the end of the sentence. The verb should then 
agree in number with the first substantive. 

El hombre fue sentenciado a The man was sentenced to death 
muerte con la mujer. with the woman. 


There is, however, a slight difference in meaning between 
the construction with con and that with y: the conjunction 
does not necessarily imply that the two persons referred 
to were sentenced together, while the preposition plainly 
expresses this circumstance. 


54. Substantives Connected by Asi Como, Tanto 
Como. —If the first of two substantives serving as subjects 
to the same verb is placed between' asi or tanto and como, and 
the second substantive follows the latter words, the verb 
should be plural; both the expression asi . . . como and 
tanto . . . como being then rendered by both . . . and. 


Asi el hombre como la mujer' 
fueron sentenciado s a 
muerte. 

Tanto el hombre como la mujer 
fueron sentenciado s a 
muerte. 


Both the man and the woman 
were sentenced to death. 


55. If the expression asi como or tanto como follows the 
first substantive, it is equivalent to as well as, and the verb 
should then agree in number with the first substantive. 

El hombre, asi como la mujer, The man, as well as the woman, 
fue sentenciado a muerte. was sentenced to death. 

56. Two Substantives Connected by Como.— The 
rule given in the preceding article applies when the combina¬ 
tion asi como is replaced by como, as, like. 

Don Pedro, como Don Miguel, es Mr. Peter, like Mr. Michael, is a 
comerciante. merchant. 







28 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


27 


57. The agreement of the verb with the first of two 
substantives connected by como or asi como applies even in 
cases where the two substantives are of different persons. 


Elios, como yo, son medicos. 

Yo, como ellos, soy trances. 

Aquellas senoritas, como nosotros, 
estan muy deseosas de visitar 
la casa de moneda. 

Elios, asi como nosotros, viven 
en el hotel Santander. 


They, like me, are physicians. 

I, like them, am a Frenchman. 
Yonder young ladies, like us, are 
very desirous to visit the mint. 

They, as well as we, live in the 
hotel Santander. 


58. Verb Preceding Several Substantives Con¬ 
nected by V. — When a verb precedes several plural 
subjects connected by the conjunction y, either expressed or 
understood, it is placed in the plural number. If the sub¬ 
jects are singular or of different numbers, the verb may be 
either placed in the plural number or made to agree with the 
nearest substantive. The plural form of the verb is prefer¬ 
able, especially when the substantives denote human beings. 


Me sorprendieron (or, sorprendio) 
su hermosura, su modestia y su 
aire distinguido. 

Entraron el papa y uno de los 
cardenales. 

Descubrieron esta ley natural Da¬ 
rwin y Wallace. 

Acababan Newton y Leibnitz de, 
inventar el calculo infinitesimal. 

59. This rule does not ap; 
of the tacit verb before the 
substantive. In such case, tt 
first substantive. 

Diego entonces el capitan del 
buque, y d poco (that is, y a 
poco llego) el contador. 


Her beauty, her modesty, and her 
distinguished air surprised me. 

The pope and one of the cardi¬ 
nals came in. 

Darwin and Wallace discovered 
this natural law. 

Newton and Leibnitz had just in¬ 
vented the infinitesimal calculus. 

Ay when an adverbial modifier 
last substantive precedes that 
verb should agree with the 

The captain of the ship arrived . 
then, and shortly afterwards, 
the purser. 


60 . Several Substantives Expressing One Idea. 
When two or more substantives connected by the conjunc¬ 
tion y , either expressed or understood, are so related in 





§27 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


29 


thought that they really express one idea, or different 
elements combined into one single fact, the verb should be 
placed in the singular. 

La pasion y muerte de Cristo ha The passion and death of Christ 
sido cantada por varios poetas has been sung by several pious 
piadosos. poets. 


Here the passion and death of Christ are referred to as 
one fact. Had the intention been to refer to his passion and 
his death separately, the verb should have been placed in the 


plural, and the article repeated 

La pasion y la muerte de Cristo 
lian sido cantad&s por varios 
poetas piadosos. 

Likewise, 

El entusiasmo y aplauso fue 

grande. 

El entusiasmo y el aplauso fue- 
ron grander. 


before the second substantive. 

The passion and the death of 
Christ have been sung by sev¬ 
eral pious poets. 


The enthusiasm and applause was 
great. 

The enthusiasm and the applause 
were great. 


The difference between these two sentences is similar to 
that between the two sentences considered before, and is 
plainly indicated by the translations. 

61. Mas de Uiio.— This expression requires the singu¬ 
lar form of the verb following or preceding it. 


Mbs de un explorador incauto ha More than one incautious explorer 
perecido a manos de aquellos ; have perished at the hands of 
salvajes. i those savages. 


62. Que De.—This exclamatory expression, when fol¬ 
lowed by a plural substantive, is equivalent to the exclam¬ 
atory adjective cuantos,-as, how via?iy, and requires the 
plural form of the verb. 


“jLibertad! ique de crhnenes se 
coineteii en tu nombre!” 
;Que de rabulas ban tratado de 
probar que el testamento es 
legalmente nulo! 


“Liberty, how many crimes are 
committed in thy name!” 

How many pettifoggers have tried 
to prove that the will is legally 
void! 





30 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§27 


63. Ser Followed by a Predicate Substantive. 
When the subject of a sentence and a predicate substantive 
are connected by the verb ser , and the two substantives are of 
different numbers, the verb may agree with either. In most 
cases, however, it is preferable to make the verb agree with 
the subject, especially if the latter is plural and is preceded 
by the definite article. 

“Los trabajos son {or, es) la 
'herencia del hombre.” 

La vida del hombre es {or, son) 
esperanzas y desengafios. 

Lo que mas lo afligio fue {or, 
fueron) las calumnias de los 
que antes hablan sido sus 
amigos. 

64. The verb should agree with the subject when the lat¬ 
ter is modified by the adjective todo, all , used predicatively. 

La vida del hombre es toda es- | Man’s life is all hopes and dis- 
peranzas y desengafios. | appointments. 

65. Infinitives Connected by X. —A verb referring 
to several preceding infinitives connected by the conjunction 
y, expressed or understood, should be singular if the actions 
or facts denoted by the infinitives are taken conjointly; that 
is, if the simultaneous existence of all those facts or con¬ 
ditions is indispensable for the existence or realization of 
what is expressed in the predicate. 


“Hardships are the inheritance of 
man.” 

Man’s life is hopes and disap¬ 
pointments. 

What most grieved him was the 
slanders of those who had pre¬ 
viously been his friends. 


“Levantarse temprano, hacere jer- 
cicio y comer moderadamente 
es provechosisimo para la sa- 
lud.” 


‘To rise early, take exercise, and 
eat moderately is very beneficial 
to health.” 


Here the three infinitives are taken conjointly, the idea to 
be conveyed being that health will be preserved or improved 
by combining the three actions they denote. If it is desired 
to state that each of these actions or habits is by itself 
conducive to health, the article should be repeated before 




27 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


31 


each infinitive, and the verb, which then refers to each 
infinitive separately, should be plural. 


‘ ‘El levantarse temprano, el hacer 
ejercicio y el comer modera- 
damente soil provechos t s it no s 
para la salud.” 


“To rise early, to take exercise, 
and to eat moderately are very 
beneficial to health.” 


66. Neuters.— Two or more neuters, other than infin¬ 
itives, connected by the conjunction y, expressed or under¬ 
stood, generally require the verb to be in the singular. 


Esto y lo que ya sabiamos <les- 
perto nuestras sospechas. 

Lo que usted ha hecho y cuanto 
haga por obtener ese empleo 

sera inutil. 


This and what we already knew 
aroused our suspicions. 

What you have done and all you 
may do to obtain that situation 
will be useless. 


6 i . When the subjects of a verb include both neuter and 
non-neuter substantives connected by y, the verb may be 


indifferently placed in either 

Es(o,y otras cosas que supe luego, 
me irul ujeron (or, me in- 
dujo) a presentar mi renuncia. 

Lo que le envio hoy, y el piano 
que le mande lasemana pasada, 
costo (or, costaron) tres mil 
doscientos pesos. 


the singular or the plural. 

This, and other things that I 
learned afterwards, induced me 
to send in my resignation. 

What I am sending you today, 
and the piano I sent you last 
week, cost three thousand two 
hundred dollars. 


68. For the purposes of syntax, a proposition introduced 
by the announcing que, the phrase el que or an interrogative 
pronoun, adjective, or adverb, is treated as a neuter substan¬ 
tive; and, therefore, when such propositions are connected 
with one another or with other substantives by the conjunc¬ 
tion y, the rules stated in the two preceding articles should 
be applied. 

Que el estuvo alii, y que tomo That he was there, and that he 
parte en el ataque, ha sido de - took part in the attack, has 

mos/rado. been proved. 

El que el lo afirme y el que usted The fact that he affirms it and 
lo crea no prueba que ello sea that you believe it does not 
cierto. | prove that it is true. 




32 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§27 


Donde murid San Pedro y en que Where Saint Peter died and in 
ano esta todavia por averiguar. what year still remains to be 

ascertained. 

69 . When two neuters are connected by y and the predi¬ 
cate denotes or implies agreement between the two, or, on 
the contrary, that they oppose or exclude each other, the 
verb should be plural. 


Esto y lo que usted dice no estan 
de acuerdo. 

Aquello y esto pareeen confir- 
marse. 

Que el hombre deba sus virtudes a 
la gracia de Dios , y que Dios 
lo premie por ellas, se exclu- 
yeii. 


This and what you say do not 
agree. 

That and this seem to confirm 
each other. 

That man should owe his virtues 
to the grace of God, and that 
God should reward him for 
them, exclude each other. 


70 . When a plural predicate substantive refers to two or 
more neuters as subjects, the verb should be plural. 


“Sentir y mover se son cu alidades 
caracteristicas del animal.” 

Esto y todo cuanto estd por venir 
seran leceiones que nuestro 
pueblo no olvidara nunca. 

Quien lo mato y donde esta su 
cuerpo son cosas que la policia 
estd investigando. 


‘‘To feel and to move are charac¬ 
teristic properties of the ani¬ 
mal.” 

This and all that is to come will 
be lessons that our people will 
never forget. 

Who killed him and where his 
body is are things that the 
police are investigating. 


71 . Relative as Predicate.—The antecedent of a 
relative pronoun or phrase performing the office of a predi¬ 
cate substantive is not the subject of the sentence: its ante¬ 
cedent is an implied substantive of the third person, such 
as hombre, man; personas, persons , and the like. When a 
predicate relative is followed by a verb to which it serves as 
subject, the verb should logically agree with the implied 
antecedent, and be, therefore, in the third person. Some 
of the best writers, however, make the verb agree with the 
subject of the sentence, instead of the antecedent of the 





27 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


33 


relative; and so the two constructions may be considered as 
equally proper grammatically. 

Yo fui quien lo (lijo (or, dije). 

Tu eres el que ha (or, has) tra- 
tado de deshacer el contrato. 

Nosotros fuimos quienes mas se 
opusieron (or, nos opusi- 
mos) a que la hacienda se 
hipotecase. 

72. Care should be taken not to confound the construc¬ 
tion just explained with others in which the subject of the 
sentence is really the antecedent of the relative. The verb 
should then agree with that antecedent. 


It was I who said it. 

You are the one who have tried 
to undo the contract. 

We were the ones who most 
opposed the mortgaging of the 
ranch. 


A1 fin llegas tu, que puedes 
darnos los datos que necesita- 
mos. 

Lo afirmo yo, que vi los sucesos 
con mis propios ojos. 


You arrive at last, who can give 
us the data we need. 

I, who saw the events with my 
own eyes, affirm it. 


SYLLEPSIS 

73. The term syllepsis is applied to a rhetorical figure 
by means of which a word of reference, such as a pronoun 
or an adjective, is applied to a whole class of which one or 
several individuals have been previously mentioned in the 
sentence; the form of the reference word being the same as 
would be employed if the whole class to which it refers had 
been mentioned, instead of one or several particular indi¬ 
viduals. The employment of the accusative case of general¬ 
ization, treated in Part 4, is but an application of this figure. 

Slrvase ensenarme una corbata de Please show me a silk necktie.— 
seda. — Nosotros no las vende- I We do not sell any, sir. 
mos, senor. 

In the second of these two sentences, las refers to the 
whole class corbatas de seda, silk neckties , of which one 
alone has been mentioned in the first. 





34 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


27 


Shakespeare acababa de escribir 
una tragedia, para escribir las 
cuales tenia grande habilidad. 


Shakespeare had just written a 
tragedy, a kind of work for 
which he had great skill [ lit¬ 
erally, Shakespeare had just 
written a tragedy, for writing 
which [that is, tragedies) he 
had great skill]. 


Here the phrase relative las cuales refers to the whole class 
tragedias, tragedies, of which a particular one has been pre¬ 
viously mentioned in the sentence. 


Si usted desea un corresponsal, 
vea“El Heraldo,” dondeellos 
publican avisos ofreciendo sus 
servicios. 

El hombre ese parece cegente via- 
jero, y los tales siempre me 
inspiran desconfianza. 

No le envie la cuenta a ese peti- 
metre, que ellos nunca las 
pagan. 


If you wish a correspondent, 
see The Herald, where they 
{that is, correspondents) publish 
advertisements offering their 
services. 

That man looks like a traveling 
agent, a class of men that {lit¬ 
erally, and such men) always 
inspire me with distrust. 

Do not send the bill to that fop, 
for they {that is, fops) never 
pay them {that is, bills). 


The student should pay particular attention to the exam¬ 
ples just given, as syllepsis is of very frequent occurrence 
in Spanish writings, and often puzzles foreigners who are 
not familiar with this peculiarity of the language. 







































































































s 





















h- H 


■ 























. 
























• • 



































* 


























* 

















































































































A SERIES OF QUESTIONS 


Relating to the Subjects 
Treated of in This Volume. 


It will be noticed that the questions contained in the fol¬ 
lowing pages are divided into sections corresponding to the 
sections of the text of the preceding pages, so that each 
section has a headline that is the same as the headline of 
the section to which the questions refer. No attempt should 
be made to answer any of the questions until the corre¬ 
sponding part of the text has been carefully studied. 




~ 


• ‘ • •, • . B 4} 
































■ ‘ 





































































































































































; 













« 













SPANISH GRAMMAR 

(PART 1) 


EXAMINATION QUESTIONS 

(1) What is the difference between Castilian and the 
language spoken in Spanish America? 

(2) How many letters are there (a) in chieharra, har¬ 
vest fly; ( b ) in cucliillo, knife. 


(3) Arrange the following words in alphabetical order, 
as they would occur in a Spanish dictionary: 


calle, street 
pecho, chest 
lujo, luxury 


pectoral, pectoral 
llover, to rain 
calma, calm 


(4) Point out the diphthongs and the non-diphthongal 
vowel combinations in the following words: 


quienes, who 
coexistencia, coexistence 
navfo, ship 
peor, worse 
baul, trunk 


cualidad, quality 
reunion, meeting 
yoconfiaria, I should trust 
Caucasiano, Caucasian 
yo continuo, I continue 


(5) Divide the following words into orthographic sylla¬ 


bles: 

contrario, contrary 
billete, ticket 
Chihuahua, Chihuahua 
lingiiista, linguist 
corcho, cork 

hallariamos, we should find 
conflagracion, conflagration 


cacaotal, chocolate-tree planta¬ 
tion 

Paraguay, Paraguay 
estfo, summer 
continuo, I continue 
continuo, continuous 
extraordinariamente, extra¬ 
ordinarily 


l 16 






2 SPANISH GRAMMAR §16 


(6) What vowels are emphasized in pronouncing- the fol¬ 


lowing words? 

1. situar, to situate 

2. reumatismo, rheumatism 

3. examen, examination 

4. averiguabais, ye were in¬ 

quiring 


5. lamparas, lamps 

6. pausa, pause 

7. piel, skin 

8. vergiienza, shame 

9. infielmente, unfaithfully 


In answering this question, refer to the words by their 
numbers, and also state what rule you have applied; thus: 
“In 1 the accent is given to the —, according to Art. — 


(7) (a) What is the subject in each of the following sen¬ 

tences? (b) Point out the substantives, adjectives, verbs, 
adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions in each sentence. 
(e) Point out the modifiers, both phrases and words, and 
state which of them are restrictive words. 


1. La vida es corta. 

2. Yo vengo de la iglesia. 

3. Don Quijote es la obra es- 

panola mas bien escrita. 

4. Mi hermano es feliz, aun- 

que tiene poco dinero. 


1. Life is short. 

2. I am coming from church. 

3. Don Quixote is the best- 

written Spanish work. 

4. My brother is happy, al¬ 

though he has little 
money. 



SPANISH GRAMMAR 

(PART 2) 


EXAMINATION QUESTIONS 

VOCABULARY 

Note.— The Spanish words necessary for answering the following 
examination questions are here given with their English translations. 
All verbs given are regular, unless the abbreviation irr. is printed 
after them. The student should not attempt to use forms of 
irregular verbs, except of those whose conjugation he knows. 
Adjectives having only one form for both genders are marked with a 
(*): the others have two forms, of which only the masculine is given. 
The abbreviations m. and f. stand for masculine and feminine, 
respectively. 


agua, f., water 

democratico, democratic 

amigo, m., friend 

desear, to zoish 

ano, m., year 

donde, where 

aqui, here 

entrar, to come, or go, in 

asunto, m., affair 

escribir, to write 

ayer, yesterday 

escrito, written 

azul,* blue 

escuadra, f., squadron 

beber, to drink 

espejo, m., mirror 

bonito, pretty 

esperar, to wait for 

bueno, good 

estudiar, to study 

cansado, tired 

feliz,* happy 

cara, f., face 

firma, f., firm 

carta, f., letter 

franees, French 

casa, f., house 

general, general 

ciudad, f., city 

hierro, m., iron 

comer, to eat 

hombre, m., man 

comprender, to understand 

hoy, today 

con, with 

inteligencia, f., intelligence 

condicion, f., condition 

libro, m., book 

cortina, f., curtain 

llamar, to call 

cuando, when 

llenar, to fill 

danar, to spoil 

manchar, to soil 


g 17 



2 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


17 


VOCABULARY — (Continued) 


mandar, to send 

quien, who 

manzana, f., apple 

quiza, perhaps 

raanana, tomorrow 

recibir, to receive 

m&quina, f., machine 

reloj, m., watch 

mejor, better , best 

republicano, republican 

mi,* my 

rico, rich 

morir, irr., to die 

senor, m., sir, gentleman 

muy, very 

senora, f., madam, lady 

nuestro, our 

socio, m., partner 

nuevo, new 

su,* your 

partido, m., party 

telegrama, m., telegram 

partir, to depart 

teoria, f., theory 

pero, but 

trabajar, to work 

pesado, heavy 

veneer, to vanquish 

plata, f., silver 

vender, to sell 

poco, little 

vida, f., life 

poder, m., power 

vivir, to live 

que, that , which 

ya, already 

quebrar, to break 



(1) Translate the following sentences into English: 

(a) Tenemos unos libros muy buenos. ( b) «[D6nde vive su 
amigo? —Vive en Nueva-York. ( c ) Aqul viven unas senoras 
francesas. 

(2) Translate the following sentences into Spanish: 

(a) Do you understand Spanish? —No, sir, I do not under¬ 
stand it. (£) Does your son work with a rich firm? —Yes, 
sir, he works with a very rich Spanish firm. (c) The 
mirrors that you sent were broken when I received them, 
and the curtains were soiled. 

(3) Translate the following phrases into Spanish: 

(a) the rich ladies of the city; (b) the best years of my life; 
( c ) the Republican party; ( d) the theories of the Democratic 
party; (e) very pretty faces, but very little intelligence; 
(/) the Spanish squadrons; {g) the blue waters. 

(4) Translate the following sentences into English: 

(a) Has vencido. (b) ^Quien te ha hablado de ese asunto? 
( c) Manana partiremos. ( d) ^Recibisteis nuestro telegrama? 
( e) iCon quien hablaban sus socios cuando yo entre? 


17 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


3 


(5) Translate the following sentences into Spanish: 

(a) I spoke with him yesterday, and with her today. 
(b) When I called him, he was writing a letter. 

(6) Translate this sentence into Spanish: 

This gentleman and this lady are Spanish; I have spoken 
with them. 

Explain the rules you have applied in making this transla¬ 
tion, and why you use certain forms instead of others. 

(7) Translate into Spanish: 

(a) I am tired of waiting, (b) This hook is not good for 
studying, (c) Here is a machine filling all the conditions. 

Explain the points of difference between the English and 
the Spanish form of construction. 

(8) Translate the following sentences into Spanish: 

(a) Eat (ye) and drink, (b) Let us eat and drink; tomor¬ 
row, we shall die. ( c ) Do (ye) not drink. ( d ) Do (thou) 
not drink. 

(9) Translate into English: 

{a) El partido republicano esta en el poder. ( b) Mi amigo 
esta de general. 

Refer to the articles stating the rules you have applied in 
these translations. 

(10) Translate into Spanish: 

(a) I am very tired, (b) Iron is heavy. ( Use the article 
before hierro.) ( c) These apples are spoiled. ( d) My watch 
is of silver. ( e ) We are not happy. 

Explain the rules you have applied, and refer to the articles 
where they are stated. 

(11) Translate the following sentences into Spanish, both 
with and without redundant forms: 

(a) I spoke to him. ( b ) I spoke to her. ( c ) I shall 
speak to you. ( d ) He has not spoken to me. (e) Have 
you sent the letters to your partner? 

Explain in what cases the redundant form is necessary, 
and why. 


4 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§17 


(12) Translate into Spanish: 

(a) My friend’s houses. ( b) Have you your partner’s 
book? ( c ) This machine belongs to that man. 

(13) Translate into English: 

(a) Hoy no le he hablado a ella. ( b) ^De quien es esta 
casa? — De mi socio.— £No desea el venderla? —Desea vender- 
sela a un senor espanol; quiza ya se la ha vendido. 

(14) Translate into Spanish: 

( a) I wish to sell it (a house). ( b) I do not wish to sell 
them (the mirrors). ( c ) I have sold them (the apples). 
( d) I shall sell them (the watches) to her. 

[The words in marks of parenthesis indicate the objects 
to which the pronouns refer: they are not to be translated.] 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 

(PART 3) 


EXAMINATION QUESTIONS 

VOCABULARY 


ambicioso,-a, ambitious 
amenazar, to threaten 
anillo, ring 
apagar, to extinguish 
aqui, here 
arma, weapon 
atacar, to attack 
aun, still 
aunque, although 
bueno,-a, good 
caiman, alligator 
cansado,-a, tired 
capaz de, able to 
caridad, charity 
casado,-a, married 
cierto,-a, true 
con, with 

contento,-a, satisfied 
cosecha, harvest 
costoso,-a, expensive 
criado, servant 
cubano,-a, Cuban 
cuando, when 
deber, must 
desear, to wish 
diamante, diamond 
dicho, said , told 
disponer, irr., to dispose 
distancia, distance 
doctrina, doctrine 
ddnde, where 


dos, two 

energico,-a, energetic 
entre, between 
escrupulo, scruple 
ese,-a, that 

Estados Unidos, United States 
exportar, to export 
extranjero,-a, foreign 
extranamente, strangely 
falso,-a, false 

trances, French, Frenchman 

general, general 

gran, great, large 

hacer, irr., to do 

hallar, to find 

hay, there is, there are 

hermano, brother 

hermoso,-a, handsome 

interprete, interpreter 

italiano,-a, Italian 

joven, young 

Jorge, George 

ley, law 

lleno,-a, full 

llegar, to arrive 

machete, machete 

marmol, marble 

mezclar, to mix 

mio,-a, mine 

muchacho, boy 

muchos,-as, many 



2 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§18 


VOCABULARY— 


negro, negro 
obedecer, irr., to obey 
obligar, to oblige 
padre, father 
pais, country 
palacio, palace 
pariente, relative 
placer, pleasure 
populacho, populace 
por, by , fot 
prestar, to lend 
primer, primero, first 
principiar, to begin 
prisa (de), hurry ( in ) 
producto, product 
puede, {he) can 
qui6n, who 


(Continued) 
raro,-a, rare 
ridiculo,-a, ridiculous 
rio, river 
robar, to steal 
rubi, ruby 
salir, irr., to leave 
salvaje, savage 
soldado, soldier 
solo,-a, alone 
sombrero, hat 
su, your , his 
sublime, sublime 
teatro, theater 
vapor, steamer 
verdadero,-a, true 
virtu d, virtue 


(1) Translate the following sentences into English, and 
point out the proper and the common nouns, and the sur¬ 
names in each: 

(a) Jorge Washington fue el primer presidente de los 
Estados Unidos. ( b ) El canal de Panama fue principiado 
por el senor Lesseps. ( c ) En el Magdalena, rio de los 
Estados Unidos de Colombia, hay muchos caimanes. 

(2) Translate into Spanish, and explain the difference 
between the English and the Spanish form of construction: 

The populace were threatening the palace when the sol¬ 
diers attacked them. 

(3) Translate into Spanish: 

( a ) Who is that little boy? ( b ) Where is your little sister? 

(4) Translate into English: 

iDe quidn es ese sombreron? 

(5) Translate the following sentences into Spanish; 
state what rules you have applied for the formation of the 
plural, and refer to the articles containing them; also, give 
the gender of each substantive, and state your reasons for 
giving it that gender: 

(a) That ring has two diamonds and two rubies, (b) Put 


18 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


3 


out the lights. ( c) We must obey the laws. ( d ) The Italian 
marbles are very beautiful. ( e) There are many generals in 
the South American countries. 

(6) Translate into English: 

(a) La criada no ha llegado aun. ( b ) El teatro estaba 
lleno de espanolas y francesas. (c) ^Tiene usted muchas 
parientas? ( d) iQuien es la interprete de ese hotel? 

(7) Translate the following sentences into Spanish, 
(1) assuming the speaker to be a man; (2) assuming the 
speaker to be a woman: 

(a) I am very tired. ( b ) I am not married, (c) I 
arrived alone. 

(8) Translate the following sentences into Spanish, and 
state how you can ascertain the gender of the nouns you use: 

( a ) The harvest was ( estuvo) good. ( b) Charity is a very 
rare virtue. [Use article before caridad.j (c) The machete 
is the weapon of the Cuban negroes. 

(9) Translate into English: 

( a ) Cuanto hay aquf es mfo, y usted puede disponer de 
ello. ( b) Todo lo que le he dicho es cierto. (c) Aunque 
el tiene mucho, no esta contento con ello. (d) Lo verdadero 
y lo falso estan extranamente mezclados en esa doctrina. 
(e) Aqui todo lo extranjero es costoso. 

(10) Translate into Spanish: 

(a) I lent him all I had {tenia), (b) There is not much 
distance between the sublime and the ridiculous, (c) What 
Cuba wishes is to be able to export her products. 

(11) Translate into English: 

(a) Mi padre es espanol, pero yo no lo soy. (b) Esa 
senora parece joven, aunque no lo es. ( c) Robar es la pro- 
fesion de esos salvajes, que lo hacen sin escrupulo, hallando 
gran placer en ello. 

(12) Translate into English: 

(a) Lo de prisa que estabamos nos obligo a salir por el 
vapor frances. {b) Los americanos son notables por lo 
energicos y lo ambiciosos. 




SPANISH GRAMMAR 

(PART 4) 


EXAMINATION QUESTIONS 

VOCABULARY 


abogado, lawyer 
acabar, to finish 
acostumbrar, to accustom 
ademas, besides 
afeitar, to shave 
almirante, admiral 
amar, to love 
aprender, to learn 
armada, navy 
ateniense,* Athenian 
ayer, yesterday 
bueno, good 
buque, ship 

buque de vela, sailing vessel 
cabeza, head 
caja, box 
capitan, captain 
carta, letter 
ciudad, tozvn 
clima, climate 
comprar, to buy 
contestar, to answer 
coronel, colonel 
cuando, when 
cuando? when? 
cuarto, room 
chocar, to dislike 
dar, irr., to give 
yo di, I gave 
dado, given 
deber, must 


decir, irr., to say, to tell 
diga (imperative of decir) 
dejar, to leave 
desear, to desire 
dificil ,* difficult 
digno, worthy 
dinero, money 
document©, document 

( doler, irr., to ache 
duele (third person singular, 
indicative present, of doler) 
donde? where? 
empresa, undertaking 
enemigo, enemy 
entre, between, among 
enviar, to send 
escribir, to write 
escritura, deed 
extranjero, foreign 
faltar, to lack 
firma, firm 
firmar, to sign 
flor, flower 
generos, goods 
gente, people 
gustar, to like 
hecho, made 
hermano, brother 
idioma, language 
joven, young man 
leer, irr., to read 



2 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


19 


VOCABULARY — (Continued) 


libertad, liberty 
libro, book 
llamar, to call 
llegar, to arrive 
Uevar, to take, to carry 
maestro, teacher 
manana, tomorrow 
matar, to kill 
mencionar, to mention 
mil, one thousand 
mucho, much, a great deal, very 
much 
muy, very 
necesario, necessary 
necesitar, to need 
ni, nor, neither 
noticia, news 
nuestro, our 
oficial, officer 
otro, other , another 
padre, father 
pais, country 
pedir, irr., to ask 
pedido (participle of pedir ) 
penoso, painful 
perseverancia, perseverance 


^poder, irr., can 
puede, pueden (third persons, 
indicative present, of poder) 
poner, to put 

ponga (subjunctive of poner, 
third person singular) 

. puesto (participle of poner) 
prefecto, prefect 
preguntar, to ask 
recibo, receipt 
refuerzo, reenforceme7it 
respuesta, answer 
saco, coat 
salir, irr., to go out 
secretario, secretary 
separar, to separate 
sobrar, to have in excess, or plenty 
socio, partner 
sombrero, hat 
su, your, his, her, their 
terno, suit of clothes 
tienda, store 
trabajo, work 
varios,-as, several 
vender, to sell 
vino, wine 


(1) Translate into English: 

Vos, senor presidente, os habeis hecho digno de nuestra 
admiracion y de nuestro respeto. 

(2) Translate the following sentences into Spanish; point 
out the peculiarities of the forms of expression you use, and 
refer to the articles containing the rules you apply: 

(a) I sold your partner one thousand cases of French 
wine, which I shall send to him tomorrow, (b) We buy 
all our goods from Martinez Brothers, who send them to us 
in sailing vessels. 

(3) Translate into English: 

(a) Ayer le escribi a mi maestro de espanol. (b) ^Le ha 
contestado 61 a usted? 

Which other forms could you give to these two sentences? 



19 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


3 


(4) Translate into Spanish: 

(a) I wish to read to you the letter she wrote me. 

(b) It is not possible for me to go out now, for I have to 

finish this work for my father. Besides, my head aches 
( duele ) very much. (See Arts. 6 and 17.) ( c ) Did you 

ask the servant who left that case? ( d) Put it in the other 
room for me. 

Give whatever explanations you wish regarding the trans¬ 
lations of these sentences. 

(5) Translate into English: 

(a) iMe llamaba usted a mi, 6 a mi hermano? (b) lA 
quien envio usted el recibo, a mi, 6 a dl? 

What other forms can be given to these sentences? 

(6) Translate into Spanish: 

(a) When Miss Rose and her father came in, I gave her 
the flowers and him the books you left for them. \_Dejar 
takes the dative case.] ( b) Take this deed to the lawyer 
for me, and tell him to sign it [that he should sign (sub¬ 
junctive) it]. 

(7) Translate into Spanish: 

(a) We like the people of your country, but dislike the 
climate. ( b) You have plenty of money [use sobrar], but 
lack the perseverance that is necessary for the undertaking. 

(8) Translate into English: 

(a) A nadie le es posible aprender por si mismoa hablar 
un idiom a extranjero. (b) A mi me fue muy penoso 
separarme de la firma de su padre. 

Make whatever remarks you think pertinent with regard 
to these sentences, and refer to the articles where the rules 
governing their construction are given. 

(9) Translate into Spanish: 

Who sells good hats in this town? — I sell very good ones 
at my store. (See Art. 22.) 

(10) Translate into English: 

(a) Pongase el saco. (b) ^Cuando se afeito usted? 

(c) iDonde se compro usted ese temo? 


4 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§19 


(11) Translate into Spanish: 

(a) Did Socrates kill himself, or did the Athenians kill 
him? (See Arts. 27 and 35 .) (b) Do they not speak to each 
other? ( c ) Can men love one another, and at the same 
time (al mismo tiempo) love themselves? (d) I myself 
have asked for the document many times, but neither the 
prefect himself nor his secretary has \_han, in Spanish] given 
me any ( ninguna ) answer. (See Arts. 7 , 33 , and 34 .) 

(12) Translate into English: 

El joven que llevo la noticia era uno de los oficiales de la 
armada, a quien el almirante, que necesitaba refuerzos, 
habia enviado a pedirlos a la Habana. Llegaron con el 
varios otros oficiales, entre los cuales debemos mencionar 
al coronel Sanchez y al capitan Andrade, a quienes el 
enemigo habia puesto en libertad [set free]. 

(13) Translate into Spanish: 

It is difficult for one to accustom oneself to speaking a 
foreign language. (See Art. 19 .) 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 

(PART 5) 


EXAMINATION QUESTIONS 

VOCABULARY 


acabar de (followed by infini¬ 
tive) , to have just (followed by 
participle) 
aceite, oil 
acero, steel 
ahora, now 
alcanzar, to attain 
aleman, German 
alto, high 
altura, height 
alii, there 
antiguo, ancient 
arbol, tree 

atrasado, backward, tindeveloped 

aun, still, yet 

azucar, sugar 

bahia, bay 

bello, beautiful 

bien, well 

bueno, good 

caballero, gentleman 

caja, box 

calcular, to calculate 
calidad, quality 
camisa, shirt 
capitan, captain 
carbon, coal 
carne, beef, meat 
carta, letter 
centavo, cent 
ciento, hundred, centum 


cinco, five 
cinchona, cinchona 
ciudad, city 

civilizacion, civilization 
civilizar, to civilize 
comercial, commercial 
comercio, commerce 
comprar, to buy 
con, with 

conservador, conservative 
correspondence, correspondence 
costoso, expensive 
crecer, irr., to grow 
creer, irr., to believe, to think 
curso, course 
chino, Chinese 
decidir, to decide 
dejar, to quit, to leave 
dentro de, within 
desarrollo, development 
desconocido, unknown 
decir, irr., to say, to tell 
dijo (preterit of decir, third per¬ 
son singular) 
descuento, discount 
dibujar, to draw 
diez, ten 
docena, dozen 
dos, two 
egoista, selfish 
elemento, element 


l 20 



2 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§20 


VOCABULARY — (Continued) 


enfermo, sick 

entre, between, among 

escopeta, shotgun 

escribir, to write 

espacio, space 

establecer, irr., to establish 

estudiante, student 

examinar, to examine 

experiencia, experience 

extraer, irr., to extract 

fabricar, to manufacture 

figurar, to figure 

fuerza, force 

generos, goods 

geometria, geometry 

grado, degree 

habitar, to inhabit 

hecho, fact 

hierro, iron 

hondo, deep 

hondura, depth 

idea, idea 

implicar, to imply 

imposible, impossible 

invierno, winter 

joven, young 

lampara, lamp 

lana, wool 

leccion, lesson 

libertad, liberty 

libra, pound 

libro, book 

limite, limit 

lino, linen 

malo, bad 

mandar, to send 

maquina, machine, engine 

mas, more, most 

mecanica, mechanics 

mecha, wick 

mejor, better, best 

mes, month 

metal, metal 

metro, meter 


mil, thousand 
milla, mile 
moderno, modern 
monte, mount 
motivo, motive 
movimiento, motion 
mucho, much 
nacion, natio?i 
necesitar, to need 
negocio, business 
noble, noble 
no vela, novel 
ochenta, eighty 
opinion, opinion 
oriente, orient 
panuelo, handkerchief 
papel, paper 
parecer, irr., to seem 
pasado, past, last 
patria, {one’s) country 
perjudicial, harmful, injurious 
peruano, Peruvian 
peso, dollar 
pie, foot 
pobre, poor 
poco, little 
poderoso, powerful 
poema, poem 
preferible, preferable 
progresar, to progress 
progreso, progress 
propio, proper 
proposicion, propositio7i 
que, than 
quince, fifteen 
quinina, quinine 
recibir, to receive 
representar, to represent 
requerir, irr., to require 
requiere, requires 
restringir, to restrict 
rico, rich 
ropa, clothes 
sacrificar, to sacrifice 


20 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


3 


VOCABULARY — (Continued) 


seda, silk 

selva, woods, forest 
sello, stamp 
sin, without 
sistema, system 
solamente, only 
solicitar, to solicit , to seek 
tabaco, tobacco 
tan, as, so 
tinta, ink 

tomar, to take, to carry 
tonto, foolish 
tratar, to treat 


treinta, thirty 
trigo, wheat 
util, useful 
varios, several 
veinte, twenty 

veneer, to vanquish, to conquer 
vender, to sell 

{ venir, irr., to come 
vino, {he) came 
verano, summer 
viejo, old 
vino, wine 
volante, flywheel 


l 


(1) Translate into English: 

( a ) Las ricas de Nueva-York son muy solicitadas de 
\_by\ los nobles pobres de Europa. ( b ) Los generos de 
seda son mucho mas costosos que los de lana; estos son 
preferibles para ropa de invierno; aquellos, para ropa de 
verano. 

(2) Translate into Spanish: 

(a) We have sent you ten dozen silk handkerchiefs and 
twenty dozen linen shirts, (b) The goods we have just 
received from you are not of so good a quality as those you 
sent us last month, (c) French wine is much better than 
American wine. [Do not repeat the noun vino.~\ 

(3) Translate into English: 

(a) Los egofstas creen que el que se sacrifica por su 
patria es un tonto. (b) El espanol es muy util para todos 
aquellos que tienen negocios en Sud-America. (r) Usted 
fue el que decidio vender las escopetas alemanas con un 
descuento de veinte por ciento, y las inglesas con uno de 
quince por ciento. 

(4) . Translate into Spanish: 

(a) Those who have examined our system are of the 
opinion that it is the best one. (b) Of the two proposi¬ 
tions, Mr. Spencer’s seems to me much better than that of 
the gentleman who came with him. 


4 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§20 


(5) Translate into English: 

(a) La libertad, restringida dentro de propios lfmites, es 
uno de los elementos mas poderosos del progreso. ( b ) Las 
naciones en que el comercio ha progresado poco estan aun 
mny atrasadas; aquellas en que el comercio ha alcanzado 
un alto grado de desarrollo figuran entre las mas civilizadas. 

(6) Translate into Spanish: 

(a) Quinine is extracted from the cinchona, a tree grow¬ 
ing in the forests of South America, (b) Iron, a metal 
without which civilization seems impossible, was \era\ 
unknown to the ancient Peruvians. [Use the dative case 
before era.\ 

(7) Translate into Spanish: 

(a) There, the bay is only two meters deep. ( b ) Acon¬ 
cagua, a South-American moant, is about [unas] five miles 
high. 

(8) Translate into English: 

(a) (jVenden ustedes tinta de dibujar? (b) Nosotros 
fabricamos maquinas de calcular. ( c ) Necesito. comprar 
una caja de papel de escribir. ( d) <[Tienen ustedes aceite y 
mechas para lamparas? 

(9) Translate into Spanish: 

(a) This engine requires a thirty-foot flywheel, (b) 
Steel sells [se vende\ now at ten cents a pound. ( c ) Gen¬ 
eral Castro sold me two thousand old twenty-cent stamps at 
ten dollars a hundred. 

(10) Translate into English: 

(a) El doctor Gonzalez me dijo que el capitan Pardo 
estaba enfermlsimo. (b) Longfellow escribio varios poe- 
mas bellfsimos. ( c ) La China, nacidn conservadorisima, 
fue vencida por el Japon. Este representa en el Oriente 
las ideas modernas; aquella, las ideas de los antiguos. 

(11) Translate into Spanish: 

( a ) The lessons of experience are more useful than those 
of books. ( b) The United States produces \j>roducen\ 


§20 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


5 


wheat, beef, sugar, coal, tobacco, etc. (r) Geometry treats 
of space; mechanics, of force and motion. 

(12) Translate into English: 

Creo que el ochenta por ciento de nuestros estudiantes han 
tornado el curso de espanol por motivos comerciales. 

(13) Translate into Spanish: 

( a ) More than one-half of the city is inhabited by Chinese. 
( b) We have sent only one-third of the correspondence. 

(14) Translate into English: 

El que el senor Velez hay a dejado ese negocio no implica 
que el negocio sea malo. 

(15) Translate into Spanish: 

That novels are harmful to the young is a well-established 
fact. [Place adjectival phrase after substantive. See also 
Art. 41 .] 











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- 






- 


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k 




SPANISH GRAMMAR 

(PART 6) 


EXAMINATION QUESTIONS 

VOCABULARY 


aceptar, to accept 
admitir, to admit 
anoche, last night 
antes, antes que, before 
antier, the day before yesterday 
arreglar, to settle 
asunto, subject , affair 
atribuir, irr., to attribute 
aumentar, to increase 
aun, still 
ayer, yesterday 
barato, cheap 
bondadoso, kind 
Bruto, Brutus 
caballero, gentleman 
cada, every , each 
caldera, boiler 
calidad, quality 

campo, country (rural district ) 
capitulo, chapter 
carta, letter 
casa, house 
Cesar, Ccesar 
clima, climate 
ciudad, city 
coche, carriage 
colegio, college 
comer, to dine, to eat 
como, so, as 
compania, company 

2 21 


con, with 

convencer. *o convince 
costumore, custom 
creer, irr., to think, to believe 
criado, servant 
criminal, criminal 
critico, critic 
dar, irr., to give 
di, (/) gave 
de, of, from 
'decir, to say, to tell 
dice, (he) says 

• diga (imperative of decir, sec¬ 
ond person singular) 
dijo, (he) said 
demasiado, too 
demostrar, to demonstrate 
desear, to desire, to want 
despues, despues que, after 
direccion, address 
discutir, to discuss 
doctor, doctor 
dormir, irr., to sleep 
duda, doubt 
dudar, to doubt 
llegar, to arrive 
llevar, to take, to carry 
mal, evil 
maleta, satchel 
malo, bad 




2 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§21 


VOCABULARY — (Continued) 


mandar, to send 

martir, martyr 

mas, more 

matar, to kill 

mejor, better, best 

menos, less 

mes, month 

miembro, member 

mientras, while, so long as 

Moises, Moses 

moral, moral 

muchos, many 

muestra, sample 

naturalmente, of course 

noche, night, evening 

obra, work 

orden, order 

pais, country, nation 

para, for 

paraguas, umbrella 
parecer, irr., to seem 
partir, to depart, to leave 
pedir, irr., to ask for 
pidio, {he) asked for 
peligro, danger 
pequeno, small, little 
pero, but, however 
'poder, irr., to be able 
puede, {he) is able, can 
pude (indicative preterit of 
poder, first person singular) 
podiamos (copreterit of poder, 
first person plural) 
porque, because, for 
presidente, president 
probable, likely 
probar, irr., to prove 
prueba (subjunctive present of 
probar, first and third person 
. singular) 
prohibir, to forbid 
pro meter, to promise 
puente, bridge 
pues, for , as 


que, than 
realmente, really 
recibir, to receive 
recordar, irr., to recollect 
reelegir, to re-elect 
ropa, clothes 
e, and 

economico, economic 
edificio, building 
ejercito, army 
enciclopedia, encyclopedia 
enero, January 
ensayo, essay 

entender, irr., to understand 
esclavitud, slavery 
escribir, irr., to write 
escrito, written 
estallar, to explode 
evangelio, gospel 
evidente, evident 
expulsar, to expel 
fabricar, to manufacture 
fin, end 

funcion, performance 
gracias, thanks 
grande, great, large 
gusto, taste 
hacer, irr., to make 
haga (present subjunctive of 
hacer, first and third person 
. singular) 
hay, there is, there are 
hoy, today 

impedir, irr., to prevent 
impidio, {he) prevented 
inmediatamente, immediately 
ir, irr. , to go 

va, {he) goes, {he) is going 
inspeccionar, to inspect 
invitar, to invite 
leer, irr., to read 
lei, (/) did read 
Luis, Louis 
sano, healthy , sound 





21 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


3 


VOCABULARY — (Continued) 


sastre, tailor 
segun, according to 
seguro, sure 
fsentir, irr., to regret 
\siento, (/) regret 
separar, to separate 
siempre, always 
siglo, century 
sin, without 
sobre, on, about 
sorprender, to surprise 
suegra, mother-in-law 
suplicar, to request 
tan, so, as 
teatro, theater 
temprano, early 
terminal - , to finish 
tiempo, weather 


titulado, entitled 
tomo, volume 
tren, train 
vapor, steamer 
velar, to watch 
velocidad, speed 
’venir, irr., to come 
venga (present subjunctive of 
venir , first and third person 
• singular) 

viniese (preterit subjunctive of 
venir, first and third person 
singular) 
ver, irr., to see 
versiculo, verse 
viejo, old 
violar, to violate 
vivir, to live 


(1) Translate into English: 

(a) Hoy hemos recibido muestras de los artfculos que 
ustedes fabrican, los cuales no nos parecen de tan buena 
calidad como los de Pedro Amador e Hijo. Los de ustedes 
son sin duda mas baratos, pero los de ellos son mas durables. 
(£) Senorita Dolores, si usted va a salir con su hermana, 
puede llevar mi paraguas, que es mas grande que el suyo. 
— Muchas gracias, senor Torres; me alegro que usted sea tan 
bondadoso, porque el mio es realmente demasiado pequeno 
para dos personas. 

(2) Translate into Spanish: 

(a) Of course, -I like the customs of my country better 
than those of yours. [For the verb to like , see Part 4, The 
Dative and the Dative Case.] ( b ) Gentlemen, are these 
your satchels or theirs? ( c) A gentleman asked me for 
your address and your brother’s. I gave him yours, but 
could not remember his. 


(3) Translate into English: 

(a) Deseamos que usted y su senora coman con nosotros 
esta noche. — Muchas gracias, senor L<5pez. Siento que no 
nos sea posible aceptar su invitacidn, pues dona Carmen, mi 



4 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§21 


suegra, nos escribib antier que fuesemos a comer con ella 
hoy. ( b) Segun este crftico, afin no esta demostrado que 
Bacon haya escrito ninguna de las obras atribmdas a Shakes¬ 
peare. ( c) El mal tiempo impidio que el vapor llegase 
antes. 

(4) Translate into Spanish: 

(a) I read a good essay on this subject in the third 
volume of Johnson’s Encyclopedia. ( b ) This is the seven¬ 
teenth verse of the third chapter of St. John’s Gospel. ( c) 
Voltaire wrote a very good book entitled “The Century of 
Louis the Fourteenth.” ( d) We received yesterday your 
kind letter of January 31. (e) I want you to send me a 

good carriage; the one you sent me yesterday was [era] 
very poor [bad ]. 

(5) Translate into Spanish: 

( a) You cannot be healthy so long as ( mientras ) you 
live in this climate, (b) The doctor forbade me to go to the 
theater. ( c) We requested him last night to come to dine 
with us this evening. He said he regretted that we had not 
invited him earlier ( more early) , as he had promised to dine 
with Dr. Verea. 

(6) Translate into English: 

(a) Mientras ustedes mas discutan sobre ese asunto, 
tanto menos se entenderan, pues en cuestiones de politica no 
hay argumento que convenza a nadie. (b) Dfgale al criado 
que lleve las cartas inmediatamente, no sea que el tren parta 
antes de que el llegue. ( c ) Venga a verme despubs que 
coma, para que hablemos de ese asunto. 

(7) Translate into Spanish, and explain why you use the 
indicative mode in some cases and the subjunctive in others: 

( a ) It is evident that slavery was a moral and economic 
evil. ( b ) It is likely that President Roosevelt will be 
re-elected. ( c) We watched while they slept. [Use the 
copreterit.] (d) We always inspect every building after it 
is finished, (e) We shall inspect the bridge after you have 
finished it. 


21 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


5 


(8) Translate into English: 

(a) Dudamos que la funcion haya estado tan buena como 
el senor Rojas dice. (£) iCree usted que Moises haya 
escrito [or, escribiese] los cinco primeros libros del Viejo 
Testamento? (c) No estoy seguro de que ese sastre le 
haga su ropa al gusto de usted. 

(9) Translate into Spanish, and refer to the articles con¬ 
taining the rules you apply: 

(a) Your having withdrawn [separated yourself] from the 
company surprised us very much. [Very much is rendered 
by muchisimo. Muy is not used before mmho.\ ( b) We 
could not increase our speed without danger that [peligro de 
que] the boiler might explode [without danger of the boiler 
exploding ]. (c) That Brutus killed Caesar does not prove 

that the former was a criminal and the latter a martyr. 

(10) Translate into English, and state what verbal forms 
could be substituted for those printed in bold letters: 

(a) Si llegaremos hoy a la ciudad, podemos arreglar 
este asunto con el senor Toro, antes de que el parta para su 
casa de campo. (b) Cuando el presidente llegare, el ejer- 
cito le recibira. (c) Los que vlolaren esta orden seran 
expulsados del colegio. (d) Aquellos que no hubieren 
pagado antes del fin del mes no seran admitidos como 
miembros del club. 






















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SPANISH GRAMMAR 

(PART 7) 


EXAMINATION QUESTIONS 

VOCABULARY 

Note. — Hereafter, only the infinitives of irregular verbs will be 
given in the Vocabulary. The student should refer to the Table of 
Irregular Verbs for all irregular forms. 


abrir, abrirse, to open 
abstenerse, irr., to abstain 
absurdo, absurd 
aceite, oil 

acostarse, irr., to go to bed 
alcanzar, to reach 
alimentar, alimentarse, to feed 
antes de, before 
antier, the day before yesterday 
apagar, to extinguish 
apagarse, to become extinguished, 
to go out 

aproximado, approximate 
arreglo, agreement 
asunto, affair, subject 
atraccion, attractio7i 
atreverse, to dare 
avergonzado, ashamed 
aver, yesterday 
azucar, sugar 
banco, bank 
bienestar, welfare 
boleto, ticket 
caiman, alligator 
carta, letter 
celeste, celestial 
cerca de, near 

\ 


cerrar, cerrarse, irr., to close 
cierto, true, certain 
compania, company 
conocer, irr., to be acquainted with 
consigo, with him, with you 
creer, irr., to believe, to think 
cuando, when 

cuenta (tener en), account (to take 
into ) 

cuerpo, body 
dar, irr., to give 
demorar, to delay 
derecho, right 
desgracia, misfortune 
despacho, office 
determinar, to decide 
diferir, irr., to postpone 
dinero, money 
duda, doubt 

empeorar, to make worse 
empeorarse, to become worse 
emfermo, patient (sick person) 
entonces, then 
entre, between, among 
entregarse, to surrender 
enviar, irr., to send 
esperar, to hope, to expect 

22 



2 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


22 


VOCABULARY — (Continued) 


esposa, wife 

estudiar, to study 

explicito, explicit 

extender, irr., to extend 

factura, invoice 

fecha, date 

firma, firm 

generos, goods 

hacer, irr., to do, to make 

hasta, until 

hijos, young, offspring 

huelga, strike 

idea, idea 

impedir, irr., to prevent, to forbid 

informar, to inform 

infructuoso, fruitless, useless 

lampara, lamp 

lana, wool 

levantarse, to rise 

ley, law 

lograr, to attain 

mandar, to send 

maximo, maximum 

medida, measure 

mutuo, mutual 

nadie, no one 

necesario, necessary 

observar, to observe 

odiar, to hate 

operacion, operation 

oro, gold 

parque, park 

parte, part, party 

particular, private individual 

pedir, irr., to ask for 

pensar, irr., to intend 

perder, irr., to lose 

plan, plan 

poblacion, town 

pocos, few 


poner, irr., to put 
pormenor, detail, particular 
portamonedas, pocketbook 
precio, price 

presentarse, to show oneself, to 
appear 

principiar, to begin 

privado, private 

produccion, production 

propietario, owner, employer 

propio, proper, own 

pues, for, as 

publico, public 

querer, irr., to love 

receta, prescription 

recordar, irr., to recollect 

reir, irr., to laugh 

representante, representative 

requerir, irr., to require 

resolver, irr., to resolve, to decide 

saber, irr., to know 

secretario, secretary 

semejantes, fellow beings 

siguiente, following, next 

sino, but 

solo, only 

superficie, surface 

tal vez, perhaps 

tambien, also 

tan, so, as 

temer, to fear 

temprano, early 

terminante, final, decisive 

terminar, to finish 

tierra, earth, land 

tomar, to take 

trabajador, working man 

trapiche, sugar mill 

ultimamente, lately 

ver, irr., to see 


(1) Give the preterit subjunctive, both simple and com¬ 
pound, of the verb detenerse, to stop , which is conjugated 
like tener. 


22 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


3 


(2) Translate into English: 

(a) iUsted apago la lampara? —No; se apagd porque no 
tenia aceite. (See Art. 3.) ( b ) ^Es cierto que su senora 

esposa se ha empeorado mucho ultimamente? (See Art. 3.) 
(c) Como no conociamos bien los pormenores del asunto, 
nos abstuvimos de tomar parte en la discusion. 

(3) Translate into Spanish: 

( a ) Do ye not laugh at the misfortunes of your fellow 
beings. ( b) All banks close at three o’clock. (See Art. 3.) 
(c) At what time \j>d que hora ] does the ticket office open 
this morning? (See Art. 3.) 

(4) Translate into English: 

(a) A nadie, antes de usted, se le habia ocurrido un 
plan tan absurdo. (See Arts. 13 and 14.) ( b ) ^No tiene 

usted dinero consigo? — No; se me olvido mi portamonedas. 
— No se qud haremos, pues a mi tambien se me olvido el 
mio. ( c) Tu te olvidaste de enviar la factura de los gdneros 
de lana que les mandamos antier a Sanchez y Herrera. —No 
me olvide, pero no la mande porque me hallaba en duda 
acerca de ciertos precios. (See Art. 7.) ( d ) El caiman es 

uno de los pocos animales que se alimentan de sus propios 
hijos \_young\. (See Art. 3.) 

(5) Translate into Spanish: 

(a) When you see Professor Hall, do not forget to ask 
him for the prescription I gave him yesterday, (b) The 
idea then occurred to him, that perhaps the laws of attrac¬ 
tion observed near the surface of the earth might \_podrian\ 
be extended [extenderse] to the mutual attraction of the 
heavenly bodies. ( c) It is necessary that the patient should 
go to bed early, and that he should not rise before nine 
o’clock. ( d ) They were so ashamed for [de] having sur¬ 
rendered, that they did not dare to appear in public. [Use 
the copreterit of estar and atreverse .] 

(6) Translate into English: 

(a) Las medidas que se han tornado para impedir las 
huelgas han sido infructuosas. Lo que se requiere para 
lograr este fin no son arreglos pritfados entre particulares, 


4 


•SPANISH GRAMMAR 


22 


sino leyes terminantes y explicitas, en que se determinen los 
derechos y las obligaciones mutuas de las dos partes, y en 
que se tenga en cuenta no sdlo el bienestar de los propieta- 
rios y los trabajadores, sino tambien el del publico en gene¬ 
ral. ( b) Se crefa que la celebracidn se diferiria hasta el dfa 
siguiente, pero la comisidn resolvio que no se demorase por 
mas tiempo {longer] . ( c) El canal de Panama fue princi- 

piado por los franceses, y probablemente sera terminado por 
los americanos. (d) Napoleon era tan querido de los fran¬ 
ceses como odiado y temido de los ingleses. 

(7) Translate into Spanish [use the quasi-reflexive con¬ 
struction] : 

(a) It was then believed that the production of gold had 
reached its maximum. ( b) We have been informed that your 
firm intends to send a representative to this town to study 
the sugar mills that have been lately put in operation. 
( c ) The secretary of the company has been sent for, and it is 
hoped that he may remember [subjunctive] the approximate 
date of the two letters that were lost. (See Art. 3.) 


(8) Give the whole indicative present and the subjunc¬ 
tive preterit of the following verbs: 


(a) cerrar, to close (Art. 33) 

(b) vestirse, to dress (Arts. 
2 and 41) 


( c) entender, to understand 
(Art. 33) 

( d ) resolver, to determine 
(Art. 35) 


(9) Give the gerund, the indicative copreterit, the sub¬ 
junctive present, and second person of the imperative, for 
both numbers (forms with tu and vos) of the following verbs 
[it should be remembered that pronominal cases follow the 
gerund and form one word with it]: 


(a) resentirse, to feel offended 
(Arts. 2 and 44) 

( b) reconocer, to recognize 
(Art. 37) 

(c) contradecir, to contradict 
(Arts. 57 and 59) 


(d) enviar, to send (Art. 50) 

(e) irse, to leave (Arts. 2 and 
64) 

(/) poseer, to possess (Art. 
40) 




22 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


5 


(10) Give the indicative future and the two preterits of 
the following verbs: 

(a) huir, to flee (Art. 47) ( c ) calentar, to heat (Art. 33) 

( b) reponerse, to recover ( d ) parecerse, to resemble 
(Arts. 2 and 70) | (Arts. 2 and 37) 

(11) Give the indicative present and preterit, and the 
subjunctive present, of the following regular verbs (see 
Art. 27): 

(a) escoger, to select 

( b ) sacar, to take out 
(r) con veneer, to convince 


( d) cazar, to hunt 

( e ) llegar, to arrive 

(/) distinguir, to distinguish 





» 


























































* 




























































SPANISH GRAMMAR 

(PART 8) 


EXAMINATION QUESTIONS 

VOCABULARY 


abandonar, to abandon, to give up 
abogado, lawyer 

acabar de (followed by infinitive), 
to have just (followed by parti¬ 
ciple) 

a causa de, on account of 

acerca de, with regard to 

afuera, outside 

agrimensor, surveyor 

ahora, now 

algunos, some 

alia, there 

amarillo, yellow 

anocbe, last night 

antes de, before 

ano, year 

aqui, here 

arquitecto, architect 

arreglo, agreement 

asegurar, to assure 

asesinar, to murder 

atenta, favor (said of a letter) 

aunque, although 

autorizar, to authorize 

aviso, advertisement 

ayer, yesterday 

calentador, radiator 

calentar, to heat 

calidad, quality 

camino, road 


cargamento, shipment 
cargo, charge 
carta, letter 
catalogo, catalogue 
cima, summit, top 
circular, circular 
circunstancia, circumstance 
clase, kind, class 

colocacion, situation, employment 
como, as 

competente, competent 
comprar, to buy 
comun, common 
condenar, to doom, to condemn 
confederacion, confederacy 
constitucion, constitution 
contrato, contract 
construir, irr., to construct 
corresponsal, correspondent 
corriente (el), instant (the present 
month) 
cosecha, crop 
cuarto, room 
cuenta, account, bill 
dar, irr., to give 
dato, datum 
de, of, from 
debelar, to stibdue 
deber, must 
decadencia, decline 


§23 



2 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§23 


VOCABULARY — (Continued) 


declarar, to declare 
demasiado, too 
demorar, to delay 
demostrar, irr., to demonstrate 
descubrir (part., descubierto), to 
discover 

desear, to desire 
desembarcar, to land 
dia, day 

diferente, different 
ejemplo, example 
empleado, employe 
empleo, employment 
en, in , at 

encontrar, irr., to meet, to find 
ensaye, assay 
enviar, to send 
esfuerzo, effort 
estado, state 
estipular, to stipulate 
estoico, stoic 
eterno, eternal 
experimentado, experienced 
fiebre, fever 
fin, end 
firmar, to sign 
gobierno, government 
goma, in dia rubber 
grado, degree 
hacerse, to become 
hacerse cargo, to take charge 
hasta que, until 
hermoso, handsome 
hombre, man 
imperio, empire 
impasable, impassable 
informar, to inform 
infructuoso, fruitless, useless 
ingeniero, engineer 
Inglaterra, England 
inmediatamente, immediately , at 
once 

insoportable, unbearable 
instalar, to install 


insurreccion, insurrection 
intencion, intention 
ir, irr., to go 
laboratorio, laboratory 
laboratorio de ensaye, assaying 
laboratory 
legua, league 
Luisa, Louise 
llegar, to arrive 
llegar a, to reach 
manana, tomorrrw 
maquinaria, machinery 
mas, more, longer 
materia, matter 
mecanico, mechanical 
mercancias, wares , goods 
mes, month 
min a, mine 
mismo, same 
montana, mountain 
much os, many 
necesitar, to need 
negociar, to deal, to trade 
negocio, business 
noche, night, evening 
esta noche, tonight 
nublado, cloudy 
nunca, never 
obtener, irr., to obtain 
ocurrir, to occur, to happen 
oferta, offer 
oficina, office 
ofrecer, irr., to offer 
oir, irr., to hear 
otro, other, another 
pagar, to pay 
panico, panic 
paraguas, umbrella 
pedido, order 
periodico, newspaper 
permanecer, irr., to remain 
pero, but 

pertenecer, irr., to belong 
piso, floor, story 


§23 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


3 


VOCABULARY — (Continued) 


preferencia, preference 
preferir, irr., to prefer 
preguntar, to ask 
preparar, to prepare 
pretendiente, aspirant, applicant 
probable, likely 
prometer, to promise 
propio, own 

proponer, irr., to propose 

proximo, next 

publicar, to publish 

puente, bridge 

pues, for, as 

puntual, punctual 

quimico, chemist 

recibir, to receive 

recomendacion, recommendation 

rechazar, to reject 

referirse, irr., to refer 

remitir, to remit 

representar, to act , to perform 

Roma, Rome 

romano, Roman 

ruina, ruin, fall 

salir, irr., to go out 

San Pedro, Saint Peter 

semana, week 

siglo, century 

sin embargo, however 

solamente, solo, only 

solicitar, to solicit 


sombrero, hat 

sorprender, to surprise 

sueldo, salary 

suficiente, sufficient 

sugestion, suggestion 

tarde, late 

teatro, theater 

tela, cloth ( textile fabric) 

telegrafiar, irr., to telegraph 

temperatura, temperature 

tempestad, storm 

tenedor de libros, bookkeeper 

terminar, to finish 

tiempo, time, weather 

tienda, store 

tierra, land 

todavia, still, yet 

todo, all 

trabajo, work 

trigo, wheat 

vacante, vacancy 

vapor, steamer 

varios, several 

venir, irr., to come 

ver, irr., to see 

vista, sight 

vivir, to live 

ya, already 

ya no, no longer 

zapatos, shoes 

zapatos de goma, rubber overshoes 


(1) Translate into English (see Arts. 12, 13, 16, 
and 42): 

(a) Creo que va a llover, pues esta nubladfsimo. 
( b ) l No oye usted tronar? (c) Como estaba lloviendo 
y no teniamos paraguas ni zapatos de goma, tuvimos que 
permanecer en la tienda hasta que escampo. Tan luego 
como hubo escampado, fuimos [form of ir\ a la estacion a 
encontrarlos (austedes), pero llegamos demasiado tarde. 

What other form could be given to the last sentence 
(“Tan luego como,” etc.)? 


4 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§23 


(2) Translate into Spanish, giving to ( c ) two forms —one 
with amanecer as a subjectless verb, and one in which the 
same verb has a subject (see Arts. 13 to 15, and 28): 

(a) It is likely that the wheat crop will be poor [mala] 
this year, for it has rained very much [ mucMsimo \. 

(b) When we reached the top of the mountain, we were 
informed [quasi-reflexive form] that it had been snowing 
all the week, and that the roads had become impassable. 

(c) We were in [4] sight of land when day broke [when it 
dawned], but could not land, on account of the storm. 

(3) Translate into English (see Art. 21): 

(a) Hoy ha hecho un calor insoportable, aunque ha llovido 
mucho. ( b) En Bogota hace mucho frfo,pero aquf hace mas. 

(4) Translate into Spanish (see Art. 21): 

(a) As the weather has been so bad, it has not been 
possible for us to go to see you. [Use dative with serj 
(b) The architect assured me that four radiators would be 
sufficient to heat this floor. Yesterday, however, although 
the temperature outside was only twenty-eight degrees, it 
was so cold here that I had to \tuve que\ close my office. 

(5) Translate into English (see Arts. 22 to 24): 

(a) Hace mas de una semana que les enviamos las 
mercancfas £ que ustedes se refieren en su atenta del 8 del 
corriente. ( b) Hace algunos dfas que vf un aviso en un 
periodico solicitando un corresponsal que supiese [form of 
saber ] ingles y espanol. ( c) Hoy hace dos anos que estamos 
construyendo este puente, y mahana hara cuatro que obtuvi- 
mos la concesion para construfrlo. (d) Sblo un mes habia 
que Lincoln habia muerto. ( e) Nosotros negociamos en 
telas diez anos ha, y nunca habfamos visto tiempos tan malos 
en ese negocio. 

(6) Translate into Spanish (see Arts. 22 to 24): 

(a) It is now more than a month since we wrote to you 
with regard to the work to be done [que hay que hacer ] in 
these mines. There are many experienced surveyors here, 
and we already have pne; but we need a mechanical engineer 


23 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


5 


to [para] install the machinery, and a chemist that can 
[que pueda] take charge of our assaying laboratory. There 
are no men here competent to [para] do this kind of work, 
and those we need must be sent [deben mandarse] from there. 
( b) There were several states that, not being willing 
[no qneriendo ] to belong to the confederacy, rejected the 
proposed constitution. ( c) It was only a year since England 
had declared her intention of subduing the American insurrec¬ 
tion. (d) America was discovered more than four centuries 
ago. (e) We sent you our catalogues and circulars a month 
ago, and it surprises us that you have not received them yet. 

(7) Translate into English (see Art. 26): 

(a) Acaecio que, cuando nosotros llegamos, ustedes 
acababan de salir. (b) Importaba que el arreglo se firmase 
aquella noche, pues no convenla demorar mas los trabajos. 

(8) Translate into Spanish (see Art. 26): 

.(a) It seemed [use copreterit] that all our efforts were 
doomed to be fruitless, (b) It is important that the salaries 
of employes, the working hours [koras de trabajo ], and the 
time in which the road must be finished be stipulated [quasi¬ 
reflexive form] in the contract, (c) It is advisable not to 
send this shipment before the end of the month, as it is 
likely that by the next steamer we shall receive some other 
orders from the same firm. 

(9) Translate into English, and explain why the copret¬ 
erit is used in certain cases, and the preterit in others: 

(a) Los estoicos crefan que la materia es etema. 
( b) Yo 'vivfa en Inglaterra cuando el presidente McKinley 
fue asesinado. ( c ) La fiebre amarilla era muy comun en la 
Habana, pero ya no lo es. (d) Voltaire representaba sus 
propios dramas, (e) Gibbon escribio la Decadencia y 
ruina del Imperio Romano.” (/) Cuando ustedes enviaron 
por mi, llovfa mucho. (r) Ayer llovio todo el dfa. 

(10) Translate into Spanish (see Arts. 30 to 34): 

(a) Were you at the theater last night? (6) Were you in 
your room when we went out? (c) He used to come to see 


6 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


23 


me every day \todos los dias\. (d) We were prepar¬ 
ing the advertisement when you telegraphed to us not to 
publish it [que no lo publicdsemos ]. [Use both the progress¬ 
ive form and the copreterit of preparar^\ ( e ) He promised 
he would give me a letter of recommendation. (/) We 
shall not be here tomorrow, but our bookkeeper will give 
you all the other data you desire. 

(11) Translate into English, and state what forms could 
be substituted for those printed in Italic: 

(a) No es probable que el gobierno espanol hay a 
autorizado la destruccion del “Maine.” ( b) No me parece 
demostrado que San Pedro estuviese en Roma. 

(12) Translate into Spanish, using two forms in render¬ 
ing the phrase printed in Italic: 

(a) If this panic had not occurred, we should not have 
given up the business, (b) If the circumstances had been 
different, I would have given you employment. ( c ) Had 
you written two days ago, we would have given you the pref¬ 
erence, but we have already offered the position to another 
applicant. If there should be a vacancy in our office, we will 
send for you at once. 

(13) Translate into English: 

( a) Desearamos que usted tuviese la bondad de remitirnos 
uno de sus catalogos. (b) Me gustarfa que ustedes fuesen 
mas puntuales, y que no diesen [set] mal ejemplo £ los 
otros empleados. 

(14) Translate into Spanish: 

(a) I should like to make a few \unas pocas] . suggestions. 
( b ) We should prefer that you would make us an offer. 

(15) Translate into English (see Arts. 79 and 80): 

(a) Don Manuel Gomez, a quien enviamos la cuenta ayer, 
dice que no paga. (b) Esta noche le pregunto a mi abogado 
lo que debemos hacer. ( c) ^Cuanto hay de aqul a San Salva¬ 
dor?—Habra cuatro 6 cinco leguas. ( d ) <;D6nde compraria 
la senorita Luisa ese sombrero tan hermoso?—Lo compraria 
en Chicago, pues aqul no los hay de tan buena calidad. 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 

(PART 9) 


EXAMINATION QUESTIONS 

VOCABULARY 


k, at, to 

abuso, abuse, breach 

k causa de, on account of 

aceptar, to accept 

agente, agent 

aguardar, to wait for 

alabar, to praise 

alquilar, to hire, to rent 

alii, there 

amigo, friend, 

amo, master 

amueblar, to furnish 

ancho, wide 

antes, before 

articulos, articles, goods 

atenta, favor (said of a letter) 

aun, still, yet 

avisar, to inform, to let know 

baile, ball, dance 

caja, box 

calco, tracing 

camino, road 

camisa, shirt 

carpintero, carpenter 

carta, letter 

casa, house 

casi, almost 

causar, to cause 


ciudad, city 
civil, civil 
coche, carriage 
complicado, complicated 
comodamente, comfortably 
con, with 

concesion, concession 
conducir, irr., to conduct, to carry 
on. 

confianza, confidence 
conseguir, irr., to get 
considerar, to consider 
consistir, to consist 
construccion, construction 
contestar, to answer 
corriente (el), instant (the present 
month) 

convidado, invited, guest 
cruzar, to cross 
cuarto, room 

cuidadosamente, carefully 
de, of, from 

demasiado, too, too much 
derecho, right (said of the hand) 
descuento, discount 
descuidado, careless 
despues, afterwards 
despues de, after 


i‘2i 



2 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


24 


VOCABULARY — (Continued) 


devolver, to return, to send back 
dia, day 

dibujo, drawing 
dificil, difficult 
direccion, direction 
doctor, doctor 
donde, where 
<; donde? where? 

;de donde? where from? 
duda, doubt 
Eduardo, Edward 
en, in, at 

encontrarse con, to meet, to come 
across 

enemigo, enemy 
enfermo, adj., ill 
enfermo, subst., patient (sick 
person ) 

enfrente, in front, opposite 
enviar, to send 

escribir (part ., escrito), to write 
esposa, wife 

esquela, note, short letter 
estudiante, student 
extrano, strange 
fabricante, manufacturer 
fabricar, to manufacture 
facil, easy 
familia, family 
felicidad, happiness 
frecuente, frequent 
fuera, out 
gente, people 
gobierno, government 
grande, large 
guerra, war 
hermano, brother 
herramienta, tool, implement 
hondo, deep 

impedir, irr., to prevent 
incierto, uncertain 
inferior, inferior 
inmediatamente, immediately 
inseguro, insecure, unsafe 


largo, long 

lino, linen 

listo, ready 

llegar, to arrive 

manejar, to manage, to handle 

manana, morning; tomorrow 

nuiquina, machine, engine 

matar, to kill 

mayor, greater 

mes, month 

moral, morality 

muchos, many 

muebles, furniture 

necesitar, to need 

negocio, business 

noche, flight, evening 

obtener, irr., to obtain 

ofrecer, irr., to offer 

opinion, opinion 

orilla, bank (of a river) 

pais, country, nation 

para, for, to 

pararse, to stop 

parecer, irr., to seem 

parte, part 

partir, to depart, to leave 
peligro, danger 
permanecer, irr., to remain 
permitir, to permit 
pero, but, however 
perro, dog 
pie, foot 
plan, plan 

plazo, time (forpayment) 
por, by 

poseer, irr., to possess 
practicar, to practice 
precio, price 

precipitadamente, precipitately, 

hurriedly 

predicar, to preach 
preparar, to prepare 
preparativo, preparation 
primo, cousin 











§24 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


3 


VOCABULARY — (Continued) 
probar, irr., to prove, to show salud, health 


publicar, to publish 
puente, bridge 
pues, for, as 
pulgada, inch 
razon, reason 

regresar, to retur?i, to come 

resolver, irr., to decide 

respuesta, answer 

resultado, result 

retaguardia, rear guard 

retirarse, to retreat 

rey, king 

rio, river 

ropa, clothes 

ropa interior, underwear 

ruina, ruin 

salir, irr., to go out 

saltar, to spring, to jump 


seguir, irr., to follow 
seguro, sure, certain 
siguiente, following, next 
sin, without 
sino, but 

back sobre, on, about 

sorprender, to surprise 
tal, such 
tanto, so much 
tenedor de libros, bookkeeper 
terminar, to finish 
todo, every, everything 
trabajo, work 
traje, dress , costume 
vender, to sell 
venezolano, Venezuelan 
ver, irr., to see 
vivir, to live 


(1) Translate into English, and explain the functions per¬ 
formed by the infinitives, stating in what respects they 
resemble substantives, and in what respects they resemble 
verbal time forms: 

(a) Predicar maximas de moral es sin duda muy facil; 
mas no lo es tanto el practicarlas. ( b) Epicteto decfa que la 
felicidad no consiste en poseer, sino en no desear, (c) El 
haber estado yo muy enfermo me impidio contestar antes su 
atenta carta del cuatro del corriente. (See Art. 3.) 

(2) Translate into Spanish: 

(a) Your being so careless is going to cause the ruin of 
our business. (See Art. 3.) (b) Our having published that 

letter was considered a breach of confidence, but we showed 
afterwards that we had good reasons for publishing it. 
[Use quasi-reflexive construction for rendering was con¬ 
sidered^] ( c ) It is easy to obtain a concession from the 
Venezuelan government for the construction of roads and 
bridges, but it is difficult to carry on the work, on account of 
the frequent civil wars, which make every business uncertain 
and insecure. 


4 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


24 


(3) Translate into English, and state what expression 
may be substituted for debimos, in ( b ): 

{a) A1 llegar a la orilla derecha del rfo, alcanzamos a 
ver la retaguardia del enemigo, que acababa de cruzar y se 
retiraba precipitadamente. (See Arts. 8, 48, 50.) (b) La 

maquina era tan complicada, que era casi imposible de 
manejar, y por eso \Jor that reason ] debimos devolverla. 
(See Arts. 10 and 64, 2.) 

(4) Translate into Spanish: 

(a) Did you not see the bookkeeper go out with the 
manufacturer? (See Art. 13.) (b) I have heard these 

goods very highly praised, but, in my opinion, they are far 
[muy] inferior to those manufactured by Castro Brothers. 
[ Very highly is rendered simply by muy.] ( c ) Have a tracing 
of this drawing made. (See Art. 17.) (d) Who ordered 

these boxes made? Please have them sent back, and write 
to the carpenter that they are too large. The boxes we need 
must not be more than [ mds de] three feet long by eighteen 
inches wide and ten deep. (See Arts. 17 and 142.) 

(5) Translate into English, and state by what expressions 
the gerunds can be replaced, both in Spanish and in English 
(see Art. 29): 

(a) Sabiendo que era imposible conseguir una casa amue- 
blada por el precio que usted nos escribio que deseaba 
pagar, y no pareciendonos que a usted le gustana vivir en un 
hotel, alquilamos un apartamento amueblado, donde puede 
usted vivir con su familia muy comodamente. {b) El perro, 
no conociendo a su amo en el extrano traje en que dste 
vema, salto sobre el y estuvo al matarlo. (See Art. 8.) 

(6) Translate into Spanish (see Arts. 33, 100, 159): 

( a ) What discount are you going to offer them? (b) 

Where were you coming from when I met you this morning? 
( c ) One of my patients wishes me to go to his house imme¬ 
diately. ( d ) We were going to send word for you to come 
[to send word to you to come: see Art. 19; use subjunctive 
of venir] , but heard that you had left for Philadelphia. 
(See Art. 128.) 


§24 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


5 


(7) Translate into English: 

(a) Terminado que hubimos los preparativos, enviamos 
un telegrama a nuestro primo, avisandole que todo estaba 
listo. (See Art. 41.) ( b) Hecho lo que se nos habfa man- 

dado, resolvimos permanecer all! para ver los resultados. A1 
[on\ dia siguiente, seguros de que dstos eran satisfactorios, 
partimos para la ciudad de Mejico. (See Arts. 38, 39.) 

(8) Translate into Spanish: 

(«) We have just heard that King Edward is out of 
danger. (See Arts. 48, 15.) (£) They say in this note that 
they are out of linen shirts and underwear. (See Art. 47.) 

(9) Translate into English: 

(a) No creo que nuestros muebles quepan en este cuarto. 
(See Art. 55.) ( b) Me sorprende que esos senores nos 

esten cobrando tanto, despues de habernos dicho que nos 
darfan un plazo de tres meses, el cual no se ha cumplido 
aun. (See Arts. 59, 62.) 

(10) Translate into Spanish (see Arts. 64, 65): 

(a) You ought to speak to your wife about that matter. 
( b ) You ought to have waited for me. (c) In [ al\ prepar¬ 
ing his answers, the student should follow our directions 
carefully, {d) Mr. Munoz must be ill, for I have just seen 
Dr. Parra’s carriage stop in front of his house. 

(11) Translate into English (see Art. 87): 

(a) El presidente habia de hablar aquella noche en la 
Academia de Mdsica, pero su salud no se lo permitio. 
(6) Ha de haber habido mucha gente en el baile, pues la 
mayor parte de los convidados, que eran muchos, aceptaron 
la invitacion que se les envid. 

(12) Translate into Spanish: 

(a) When do you intend to return to your country? 
(See Art. 118.) ( b) What did your lady friend think of 
our plan? (See Art. 119.) (c) Do you think it will rain 

tomorrow? (Art. 121.) (d) Our agent may have sold all 

the implements we sent with him, but he cannot have sold 
them at such prices. (See Art. 123.) 





SPANISH GRAMMAR 

(PART 10) 


EXAMINATION QUESTIONS 

VOCABULARY 


afortunado, fortunate 
aldea, village 
alguno, some 
alta, upper 
al traves de, across 
amigo, Mend 
aneho, wide 
ano, year 
aprender, to learn 
ardiente, ardent, fiery 
arroyo, stream, brook 
articulo, article 
asociarse, to associate 
aspero, uneven, rough 
aunque, although 
baja, lower 
barato, cheap 
bondadoso, kind 
bruto, brute 
bueno, good 
calle, street 

camara (de representantes), house 
{of representatives') 
cantatriz, woman singer 
caracter, character 
carbon, coal 
carecer de, irr., to lack 
cargamento, shipment, cargo 
casa, house 
castellano, Castilian 
celos, jealousy 


ciudad, city 

cobrar, to dun 

coche, carriage 

comestibles, victuals 

comodo, comfortable 

competente, competent 

condiciones, terms 

considerar, to consider 

costa, coast 

costoso, expensive 

creer, irr., to believe 

cuchilleria, cutlery 

dar, irr., to give 

deber, to owe; to have to, must 

despachar, to send off, to ship 

deudor, debtor 

dia, day 

dificil, difficult 

distinguir, to distinguish 

divino, divine 

don, gift 

encontrar, irr., to find, to meet 
ensenanza, teaching 
ensenar, to show 
entusiasta, enthusiastic 
escabroso, rugged 
especial, special 
exacto, exact 
excusa, excuse 
grande, great, large 
hermoso, handsome 



2 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§25 


VOCABULARY—(Continued) 


hombre, man 
hoy, today 
huelga, strike 

importante, important, vital 

imposible, impossible 

insignificante, insignificant 

instrumento, instrument 

laborioso, laborious 

lengua, language, tongue 

lugar, place 

llegar, to arrive 

llevar, to take, to conduct 

medida, measurement 

medir, irr., to measiire 

metafisico, metaphysical 

mezquino, petty 

modelo, standard, model 

muestra, sample 

nacion, nation 

naufragar, to be wrecked 

occidental, western 

orilla, bank {of a river) 

otro, other, another 

pagar, to pay 

pais, country, natio?i 

paisano, countryman 

palabra, speech 

parte, part 

pasado, last, past 

pasajero, passenger 

pedir, irr., to order {in business) 

personas, people 

pie, foot 

practico, practical 
precio, price 
privado, private 


problema, problem 
pronto, soon 
publico, public 
puro, pure 

reconocer, irr., to recognize 
rechazar, to reject 
representante, representative 
saber, irr., to know 
salir de (un lugar), irr., to leave 
{a place) 
salvar, to save 
satisfactorio, satisfactory 
semana, week 
senado, senate 
subir, to rise 
tal, such 

tambien, also, too 
terreno, ground 
tiempo, time 
tio, uncle 
trabajar, to work 
trabajo, ivork 
traductor, translator 
trampista, tricky 
tratado, treaty 

tratar de (un asunto), to deal 
with {a subject) 
tren, train 

triangulacion, triangulation 

vapor, steamer 

viajar, to travel 

victima, victim 

vida, life; living (noun) 

viejo, old 

voluble, voluble, fickle 


(1) Translate into English: 

( a) Aqui la vida es ahora muy costosa, por cuanto las 
huelgas que ha habido este ano han hecho subir los precios 
del carbon y de los comestibles extraordinariamente. (b) 
Los coches no son tan baratos en Nueva-York como en Paris, 
aunque son mas hermosos y mas comodos. 


§25 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


3 


(2) Translate into Spanish: 

(a) Most all the articles you ordered last week were 
shipped by today’s steamer. As to the cutlery, we have 
written to our representative there to show you some 
samples. No doubt you must have heard that the steamer 
that left there for this place [for here ] on 1 the 5th was wrecked 
off \_cerca de\ the coast of Cuba; but, fortunately, both the 
passengers and the cargo were saved. [Translate as if the 
last part of the sentence read, “they saved the passengers 
as well as the cargo,” rendering they saved by a quasi¬ 
reflexive form.] ( b ) Our work was all the more difficult 
because we lacked good instruments, and the ground was 
exceedingly rugged. There were places where we could 
scarcely measure more than ten feet at a time. The triangu¬ 
lation across streams, too, was extraordinarily laborious, 
inasmuch as the banks were so uneven that accurate meas¬ 
urements were almost impossible. 

(3) Translate into English: 

(a) iPudiera usted hacerme el favor de decirme en donde 
puedo encontrar a su tio? {d) Serfan como las seis y 
cuarto cuando el tren llego a la estacion. Allf encontramos 
a nuestro amigo Flores, quien bondadosamente nos llevo a 
su casa. 

(4) Translate into Spanish: 

(a) Patti is considered as the best singer in the world. 
( b) The streets in the upper part of the city are much 
wider than those in the lower part. As you know, the 
lower part is much older than the upper, (c) Socrates 
was the greatest man in the greatest nation of those days. 
His teachings were not, like Plato’s, of a metaphysical 
character, but dealt with the most vital practical problems 
of life, both public and private. Like many other great 
men of his time, he was the victim of the petty jealousies 
of his countrymen, who were as fickle as they were enthusi¬ 
astic and fiery. 


J Not translated. 



4 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§25 


(5) Translate into English: 

(a) Tanto el senado como la camara de representantes 
rechazaron la mayor parte de las condiciones del tratado. 
( b) Eos animales no hablan; de aqui que se hay a creido 
que la palabra es un don divino, dado especialmente al 
hombre para distinguirlo de los brutos. ( c ) Cuanto menos 
se asocie usted con espanoles e hispano-americanos, tanto 
mas pronto aprendera el ingles. ( d ) Nunca habiamos 
tenido un deudor tan trampista: mientras mas le cobramos, 
mas excusas nos da. Es probable que jamas nos pague lo 
que nos debe. 

(6) Translate into Spanish: 

(a) I have never worked as a translator, but consider 
myself competent to [_para\ do the work satisfactorily. 

( b) Who has ever heard \oido hablar\ of so insignificant a 
village? ( c ) Have you ever traveled in the western part of 
this country? (d) The Castilian language, once the standard 
of pure Spanish, is no longer recognized as such in Spanish 
America, and is nowadays spoken by some six million people 
at the most. 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 

(PART 11) 


EXAMINATION QUESTIONS 


VOCABULARY 


abrir {part., abierto), to open 
absoluto, absolute 
aguardar, to hope, to expect; to 
wait for 
ahora, now 

Alexandria, Alexandria 
Alejandro, Alexander 
amanecer, daybreak 
al amanecer, at daybreak 
amar, to love 
amigo, friend 
anoche, last night 
Antonio, Anthony 
aparente, apparent 
aprender, to learn 
arena, sand 
aunque, although 
ayer, yesterday 
banco, bank 
bestia, beast 
boca, 1 mouth 
bomba, bomb, shell 
buque, ship 

buscar, to search, to look tor 
calumniar, to slander 


carbon, coal 
carga, burden 
cargo, charge 

cenar, to take supper, to sup 
cerca de, about, nearly 
cierto, certain 
comerciante, merchant 
comercio, commerce, trade 
comision, commission 
companero, companion 
compania, company 
conciencia, conscience 
congreso, congress 
conquista, conquest 
considerar, to consider 
consolar, irr., to console 
contra, against 

corrompido, corrupt, depraved 

cosa, thing 

creer, irr., to think 

cnerpo, body 

cumplir, to fulfil 

dar, irr., to give 

deber, duty 

debido a que, owing to the fact that 


'When reference is made to the mouth of a large river, the plural 
bocas is generally preferred to the singular boca. 

I 26 






2 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


26 


VOCABULARY — (Continued) 


defender, irr., to defend 
delantero, front (adj.) 
desear, to desire 

devolver, irf., to return , to send 
back 
dia, day 

diplomacia, diplomacy 
discusion, discussion 
durante, during 
etnbarcar, to ship 
emplear, to employ , to use 
encontrar, irr., to find 
en cuanto k, as for , as to 
engano, deceit , fraud 
enriquecer, irr\, to enrich 
entregar, to deliver 
envejecer, irr., to age , to grow old 
estudiar, to study 
exclam ar, to exclaim 
6xito, result 
buen exito, success 
extrano, strange 
fabricante, manufacturer 
facilidad, facility , ease 
franees, French 
Francia, France 
fraude, fraud 
fundar, to found 
generos, goods 
genio, genius 
gusto, taste 
habitante, inhabitant 
hacerse uno, irr., to become of one 
herir, irr., to wound 
heroico, heroic 
hijo, son 
hombre, man 
hora, hour 
imposible, impossible 
independencia, independence 
indio, Indian 


ingeniero, 1 engineer 

instantaneo, instantaneous , sudden 

investigar, to investigate 

Jorge, George 

joven, young man 

julio, July 

lengua, language , tongue 
lino, linen 

locomotora, locomotive 
llamar, to call 

llamar la atencion k uno, to attract 
one's attention 
madre, mother 
maquina, machine , engine 
maquina de coser, sewing machine 
maquinista, engineer ( engineman) 
matar, to kill 
medios, means 
milla, mile 
morir, irr., to die 
mucho, much 
muchos, many 
negocio, business 
Nilo, Nile 
nino, child 
nombrar, to appoint 
nuevo, new 
obtener, irr., to obtain 
odiar, to hate 
padre, father 
pagar, to pay 
paisano, countryman 
papel, paper 
pasajero, passenger 
pasar, to pass 
patria, one's country 
pecho, breast , chest 
pedir, irr., to order , to give an 
order (in business) 
penoso, painful , hard, unpleasant 
perseguir, irr., to persecute 


’This Spanish word applies only to one who is acquainted with 
the science of engineering, an engineman being called maquinista. 



§26 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


3 


VOCABULARY — (Continued) 


pie, foot 

piedad, pity, mercy 
plazo, time for payment 
pobre, poor 
pocos, few 
politica, politics 
portugues, Portuguese 
poseer, irr., to possess 
presidente, president 
principiar, to begin 
propio, own 

prorrogar, to extend (said of time ) 

protectorado, protectorate 

querer, irr., to wish 

querido, dear 

ratificar, to ratify 

restaurante, restaurant 

reunirse, to meet, to assemble 

rezar, to pray 

rollo, roll, bundle 

roraperse, to break (intransitive) 

sacudimiento, shock 

salir, to leave , to set out 


salvar, to save 
sano, sound, uninjured 
segun, as, according to 
serio, serious 

sitiar, to besiege, to lay siege 

sociedad, society 

teatro, theater 

tiempo, time 

tienda, store 

tierra, land 

tratado, treaty 

tratar, to try 

travesia, crossing, sea voyage 
tren, train 
unico, only (adj.) 
vararse, to get stranded , to run 
aground 

vergonzoso, disgraceful 
via, track 
vida, life 
visitar, to visit 
yacer, irr., to lie, to be 


(1) Translate into English: 

(rt) Jorge, a quien un fragmento de bomba acababa de 
herir seriamente en el pecho, llamo a uno de sus amigos, 
al cual dio un rollo de papeles, diciendole: — Mi querido 
Antonio, yo estoy para morir. Entrega estos papeles a mi 
padre, y dile que su hijo murid por la patria, cumpliendo con 
su deber; que consuele a mi pobre madre, y que trate a 
Emilia, a quien yo tanto he amado, y a quien aguardaba 
hacer la companera de mi vida, como a su propia hija, 
( b ) Durante la conquista, los espanoles mataban indios sin 
piedad, o los empleaban como bestias de carga. (c) lA 
quien buscan ustedes? —Buscamos a un joven cubano que 
llego a este hotel anoche y que, segun nos han dicho, desea 
llevar uno d dos ingenieros a la Habana. 


(2) Translate into Spanish: 

(a) “Love ye those who hate you, and pray for those who 


4 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


26 


persecute and slander you.” ( b) After a great deal of 1 
discussion, the president appointed a commission to 2 inves¬ 
tigate the charges made against the coal companies, 
(c) The train was going at the rate of fifty miles an hour 
when one of the front wheels of the locomotive broke. 
Although we did our best, 3 we could save only 4 a few of the 
passengers. As to the men on' the engine, the engineer 
was the only one (whom) we could find: his body lay about 
ten feet from the track, apparently uninjured (see Art. 19, 7). 
He must have been instantly killed by the shock. 

(3) Translate into English: 

(a) Alejandro fundd a Alejandria en las bocas del Nilo. 
( b) Los espanoles sitiaron a Cartagena, que se defendio 
heroicamente. (c) Despues de una penosfsima travesfa, 
alcanzamos a ver 6 tierra al amanecer del 8 de julio; pero, 
antes que llegasemos a 7 8 ella, el buque se varo en [on] un 
banco de arena. 

(4) Translate into Spanish: 

(a) After the theater, we went and had supper at* Concha’s 
restaurant, (b) Come and 9 see me before you leave for 
Chicago, (r) It was impossible for us 19 to ship your linen 
goods before now, owing to the fact that the manufacturer 
from whom 11 we ordered them did not deliver them till 
yesterday. 

(5) Translate into English: 

( a ) Antes de principiar la construccidn del canal, hay que 
aguardar hasta que el congreso se retina y ratifique el tra- 
tado. (b) Decla un portuguds que nada le habfa llamado 
tanto la atencion en Francia como la facilidad con que los 
habitantes aprendfan el francds. “jCosa extrana!” exclamaba; 
“muchos de mis paisanos envejecen estudiando esta lengua 
diabdlica, y por mas que la estudien la hablan mal; mientras 
que aqui la hablan hasta los ninos.” 


1 mucha 9 para 3 See Part 9, Hacer ‘Use no . . . sino 

'that were in 6 See Part 9, Alcanzar ''reached 

8 went to sup to 9 come to 10 Use dative case 11 a qnien 



26 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


5 


(6) Translate into Spanish: 

(a) What has become of you, Mr. Jones? You have not 
come to see us since the 4th of July (Art. 40, 3). —I have 
not had much time to visit my friends since I opened my 
new store, where I spend most of my time. 1 ( b ) What we 
want is not a protectorate, but absolute independence. 
( c) He says in his letter that he will not give us more than 
ten days’ time 2 to 5 pay for these sewing machines; but I 
think he will extend the time if we tell him that, if he 
does not,* * we will return the machines. Whether he 
extends the time, or whether he wishes the machines returned 
to him, 5 we certainly cannot pay for them in ten days (see 
Part 9, Pagar). 

(7) Translate into English: 

Yo ni tengo gusto por el comercio, ni tengo la conciencia 
elastica que, para obtener buen exito, un comerciante debe 
poseer. Tampoco me gustan los medios vergonzosos que 
los hombres de negocios de nuestros dfas emplean para 
enriquecerse; medios que, como la diplomacia en la poli- 
tica, no son sino enganos y fraudes, pero que en nuestra 
corrompida sociedad se consideran como grandes manifes- 
taciones del genio. 


1 pass the greater part of the time 1 ten days of time 

*para 4 See Part 9, Hacer 

’’that the machines be returned to him: — quasi-reflexive construction 
































*. 

















SPANISH GRAMMAR 

(PART 12) 


EXAMINATION QUESTIONS 

VOCABULARY 


abandonar, to abandon, to give up 

k causa de, on account of 

aceptar, to accept 

acostumbrado, accustomed 

administrador, mayiager 

ahora, now 

aldea, village 

aleman, German 

ambicioso, ambitious 

antes de, before (prep.) 

ano, year 

armada, navy 

asegurar, to assure 

aumentar, to augment, to increase 

bloqueo, blockade 

boleto, ticket 

cambio, change 

canon, barrel (of a gun) 

capitan, captain 

carbon, coal 

carta, letter 

caso, case 

caucho, india rubber 
cierto, certain 
cirujano, surgeo?i 
codigo, code 

competencia, competition 
confiar, to trust, to e?itrust 
conservador, conservative 
considerar, to consider 


construction, construction 
consumir, to consume 
correo, mail 

correspondencia, correspondence 
dar, irr., to give 
deber, to have to, must 
defensa, defense 
delito, crime, offense 
derechos, duties 
desarrollar, to develop 
desde, from 
desgracia, misfortune 
por desgracia, unfortunately 
dia, day 
dificil, difficult 
disfrutar, to enjoy 
durante, during 
economico, economic 
efimero, ephemeral 
emprendedor, enterprising 
emprender, to undertake 
encontrarse con, irr., to meet, to 
come across 
entonces, then 
entrante, coming, next 
entregar, to deliver 
enviar, irr., to send 
escopeta, shotgun 
esperar, to expect 
esquela, note (short letter) 



2 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


27 


VOCABULARY — (Continued) 


examinar, to examine, to inspect 
excusar, to excuse 
exito, result, outcome 
buen exito, success 
experiencia, experience 
extranjero, foreign 
extreraado, extreme (adj.) 
fabrica, manufactory 
fabrieante, manufacturer 
factura, invoice 
fe, faith 
feliz, happy 
ferrocarril, railroad 
fin, end 
getieros, goods 
genio, genius 
guerra, war 
gusto, pleasure 

hacer, irr., to do, to make; to 
make out; to perform 
hombre, man 
homeopata, homeopathic 
hoy, today 
ignorante, ignorant 
imponer, irr., to impose, to com¬ 
mand 

importation, importation, import 

indigno, unworthy 

inexperto, inexperienced 

interesar, to interest 

invitar, to invite 

legislatura, legislature 

levantar, to raise 

ley, law 

lino, linen 

listo, ready 

manana, morning 

mayor, greater, greatest 

medico, physician 

mes, month 

metodo, method 

militar, military 

miserable, wretched 

muerte, death 


negocio, business 
ninguno, any 
noticia, news 

obligar, to oblige, to compel 
obstaculo, obstacle 
ordenar, to order, to command 
otro, other, another 
pais, country, nation 
del pais, native, domestic 
parecer, irr., to seem 
pasado, last (said of days, months, 
etc.) 

pasar, to pass 
pedir, to ask for, to order 
pena, penalty 
penetracion, insight 
perder, irr., to lose 
permitir, to permit, to allow 
placer, pleasure 
poco, little 

por tanto, consequently, therefore 

posta, courier 

precioso, precious 

problema, problem 

pronto, soon 

prudente, prudent, wise 

pueblo, people 

punto, point 

recibir, to receive 

regir, irr., to rule, to govern 

rehusar, to refuse 

resolver, irr., to solve 

resultado, result 

reunirse, to meet, to assemble 

robar, to rob, to steal 

sacrificio, sacrifice 

semana, week 

serio, serious 

servilleta, napkin 

sin embargo, hozuever 

solo , only (adv.) 

teatro, theater 

tecnico, technical 

tenedor de libros, bookkeeper 


§27 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


3 


VOCABULARY — (Continued) 


terco, stubborn 


unico, only, sole 
valer, irr., to avail 
vano, vain 
varios, several 
vida, life 

vista, sight, view ' 


tiempo, time 
toalla, towel 


todavia, yet (adv.) 
tonelada, ton 
transaction, transaction 


ultimo, last 

(1) Translate into English, and explain why ellos and 
not 61 is used in ( b ): 

(a) jQue felices eramos entonces, y cuan miserables somos 
ahora! (b) |Que pueblo tan emprendedor es el pueblo ameri- 
cano, y cuan desarrollado esta en ellos el genio inventivo! 

(2) Translate into Spanish: 

(a) How ephemeral are the pleasures of life! how vain, 
and how unworthy of the sacrifices we make to 1 enjoy them! 
(b) You cannot imagine 1 what difficult problems, both from 
the technical and from the economic point of view, we have 
had to solve in the construction of this railroad. 

(3) Translate into English: 

(a) Habiendo la competencia de fabricantes extranjeros 
obligado a los del pais a abandonar sus fabricas, el congreso 
paso una ley aumentando los derechos de importacion. 
( b) Aqul es extremadamente diffcil interesar a nadie en el 
negocio del caucho, a causa de las grandes fortunas que 
varios hombres ambiciosos pero inexpertos han perdido en 
el durante los ultimos cuatro 6 cinco anos. 

(4) Translate into Spanish, giving two forms to (a) 
(see Art. 16) : 

( a ) The legislature had not yet met, nor was expected to 
meet * 3 * before the end of the month, (b) Today is mail day, 
Mr. Aguirre, and the correspondence for South America 
must be ready by* one o’clock. Have you made out the 
invoices yet? 5 —Not yet. (See Art. 17.) 

'para. * figwrarse (see Part 7, Pronominal Verbs). 

3 nor was it expected [quasi-reflexive construction] that it would meet 

[subjunctive]. 

‘See Part 11, Para. *ya. 



4 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


§27 


(5) Translate into English: 

(a) Habiendonos el senor Romero invitado aj teatro y 
enviadonos los boletos, nos fud imposible excusarnos. 
( b) La Constitucibn no impone la pena de muerte por 
delitos politicos, ni la permite. En tiempo de guerra, sin 
embargo, rige el Codigo Militar, que no s<51o la permite 
sino que la ordena en ciertos casos. 

(6) Translate into Spanish: 

(#) When I met him this morning, he told me he was 
going to see you. ( b ) We have received the towels, nap¬ 
kins, and the other linen goods we ordered from you 1 last 
week, but having had no time to inspect them, we do not yet 
know whether we shall accept them or not. 

(7) Translate into English: 

(a) iPudiera usted hacerme el favor de darle esta esquela 
al senor secretario? —Si, senor, con el mayor gusto. El no 
esta aqui ahora, pero se la entregare tan pronto como venga. 
( b ) iComo supieron 2 ustedes la noticia? —Nos la trajo un 
posta enviado por el capitan Gutibrrez. ( c ) Se nos ha 
aseguardo que el bloqueo se levantara antes del fin de la 
semana entrante.—iQuien se lo dijo? —NoS lo dijo uno de 
los oficiales de la armada alemana. 

(8) Translate into Spanish: 

( a ) Neither the manager nor the bookkeeper seems to 
know anything about 3 this transaction. ( b) His great 
experience and insight availed him little, for he had to deal 4 
with conservative and ignorant people who stubbornly 
refused to consider any changes in the methods to which 
they had been accustomed, (c) About 5 one million tons of 
coal were consumed 8 during that period. 

(9) Translate into English, and give other forms to the 
words printed in Italic, explaining why these forms may 
be used: 

(a) Por desgracia, se me habian robado aquellas dos 

’Use dative case. * learned. 3 acerca de. 4 haberselas (see Part 9, 
Haberselas con). h conw. 6 Quasi-reflexive'construction. 



§27 


SPANISH GRAMMAR 


5 


cartas preciosas, que era mi unica defensa. ( b) El mayor 
obstaculo para emprender negocios en aquel pais es las 
guerras civiles, que son condicion cronica de todas las repu- 
blicas sur-americanas, a excepcion 1 de Chile y la Argentina. 

(10) Translate into English (see Art. 72): 

(a) No pude comprar en la aldea una escopeta de dos 
canones, pues alii no hay nadie que las venda. (b) Poca fe 
tengo en el resultado de la operacion, pues (ellas) rara vez a 
tienen buen exito. Tampoco 3 me parece que haya sido 
prudente confiarle una operacion tan seria a un' medico 
homeopata, los cuales generalmente son malos cirujanos, y 
por tanto poco competentes para hacerlas. 


'with the exception. 2 seldom. 

3 See Part 10: The Conjunction Ni and the Adverb Tampoco. 









































































« 


INDEX 


All items in this index refer first to the section number,—which is printed on the inside 
edges of the headlines and is preceded by the printers’ section mark and then to the page 
number. Thus, Aca 25 20 means find the paper having § 25 on the headlines and then find 
page 20. 


A Sec . Page 

A, Sound of. 16 3 

A, sign of the personal accusa¬ 
tive . 17 23 

Use of, to express the dative 

relation. 19 3 

with the accusative .26 1 

infinitive ... 24 4 

Various uses of . 26 8 

Absolute clauses defined. 21 24 

Use of participle 

in . 24 22 

Aca . 25 20 

modified by an adverb of quan¬ 
tity . 25 24 

44 Por. 25 23 

44 preceded by a preposition . . 25 24 

an adverb ... 25 24 

Acabar de. 24 26 

44 Uses of . 24 25 

Acabarse, Uses of. 24 25 

Acaso. 25 25 

Accent. 16 17 

“ Orthographic, in the plural 17 4 

Accentuation, Rules for. 16 17 

Various systems of 16 19 

Accusative case defined. 17 25 

44 of generalization 19 17 

constructions. Redun¬ 
dant . 19 15 

Definition of. 17 23 

how recognized ... 17 24 

prepositional phrase 

defined. 19 15 

substantive and accu¬ 
sative case .... 19 15 

Use of a with . 26 1 

Active construction defined ... 22 9 

“ form of verbs defined ... 22 9 

44 voice of verbs defined . . 22 9 

Adjective, Concord of. 27 16 


Sec. Page 


Adjective, defined. 16 27 

in quasi-reflexive con¬ 
structions . 22 19 

Position of the .... 17 30 

44 44 “ .... 27 2 

Predicate . 16 28 

Substantivized .... 20 3 

used substantively . . 20 3 

Adjectives after de . 20 6 

Agreement of .... 17 31 

Comparative degree of 25 4 

coordinating. Position 

of . 27 3 

Inflection of. 20 21 

Plural of . 17 3 

Position of restrictive 27 2 

Possessive (see Posses¬ 
sive adjectives) 

Superlative degree of . 25 8 

undergoing apocopa- 

tion . 21 21 

Use of, with subjectless 

verbs *. 23 7 

Adjectivized substantive, Render¬ 
ing of English . . 20 10 

substantive. The .20 7 

Adverb defined . 16 29 

Position of . . P . 27 5 

Adverbial phrases, List of ... . 25 51 

Adverbs, Classification of ... . 25 1 

Derivative . 25 3 

in -mente . 16 18 

4 . . . . 25 3 

Superlative degree of 25 12 


used in redundant re¬ 
ciprocal constructions 19 24 

Uses of some important 25 20 


Ago, how rendered . 23 11 

Agreement (see Concord) 

Ahl . 25 20 


Vll 










































Vlll 


INDEX 



Sec. Page 

B 

Sec. Page 

Ahi Por. 

25 

24 

B, Sound of. 

16 

5 

A1. 

17 

8 

Be, To, followed by the name of a 

* 


preceding: an infinitive. 

24 

5 

sensation. 

23 

9 

Alcanzar, Uses of. 

24 

26 

referring to state of 



Alegfrarse, Uses of. 

24 

27 

weather. 

23 

8 

Algo, Uses of. 

25 

26 

Beber, Uses of. 

24 

28 

Algruien. 

19 

38 

Bien. 

25 

29 

Algur.o, Apocopation of. 

21 

21 

Bueno, Apocopation of. 

21 

21 

indefinite pronoun .... 

19 

38 




Alla. 

25 

20 

C 



modified by an adverb of 



C, Silent. 

16 

9 

quantity. 

25 

24 

Sounds of. 

16 

5 

“Por . 

25 

23 

Caber, Irregularities of. 

22 

38 

Alii. 

25 

20 

Uses of. 

24 

28 

“ De. 

25 

22 

Cada cual, indefinite pronoun . . 

19 

38 

Alphabet, The Spanish. 

16 

2 

uno, indefinite pronoun . . 

19 

38 

Amanacer. 

23 

5 

Caer, Irregularities of. 

22 

38 

Ambos. 

21 

26 

Cardinal numerals defined .... 

20 

2 

Analogia defined. 

16 

1 

Formation of 

21 

13 

Anatema, Gender of . 

18 

22 

Peculiarities of 

21 

14 

Andar, Irregularities of. 

22 

37 

Cardinals used instead of ordi- 



“ Use of gferund with .... 

24 

19 

nals. 

21 

18 

Uses of. 

24 

27 

Case defined. 

17 

25 

Announcing: que defined. 

21 

25 

Cases, Oblique. 

17 

26 

Anochecer. 

25 

5 

of personal pronouns . . . 

19 

17 

Antecedent of a relative defined . 

19 

27 

pronouns, Combinations 



Apenas. 

25 

27 

of. 

27 

13 

Apocopation defined. 

21 

21 

Position of . 

17 

30 

of adjectives .... 

21 

21 

u tt it tt it 

27 

8 

cardinals in -uno 

21 

14 

tt it tt tt tt 

27 

11 

it u • 

ciento. 

21 

15 

the non-neutral personal 



cuanto. 

25 

17 

pronouns . 

17 

25 

recientemente . . 

25 

3 

Casi. 

25 

31 

“ tanto . 

25 

15 

in sentences with implied ne- 



Apodosis defined. 

23 

38 

gation. 

23 

48 

understood. 

23 

42 

Castilian grammar. 

16 

1 

Apposition, Substantives in . . . 

20 

9 

language . 

16 

1 

Aquel and ese. 

20 

24 

it tt 

16 

6 

Uses of. 

20 

23 

tt tt 

16 

9 

Aquel, demonstrative pronoun . . 

20 

27 

Ch. 

16 

2 

substantivized demonstra- 



formerly used instead of c . . 

16 

6 

tive... 

20 

26 

Sound of. 

16 

5 

Aquello de. 

20 

26 

Ciento, Apocopation of. 

21 

15 

esto, eso. 

18 

30 

Por, Use of the article with 

20 

38 

Aquellos, Use of. 

20 

26 

Un not used with. 

21 

15 

Aqul . 

25 

20 

Clause defined. 

24 

21 

“ De. 

25 

22 

Clauses, Absolute (see Absolute 



“ Por. 

25 

23 

clauses) 



Arte, Gender of. 

18 

23 

Cobrar, Uses of. 

24 

29 

Articles, The. 

17 

7 

Coexistence, Tenses of (see Tenses 



Asi. 

25 

27 

of coexistence) 



Asir, Irregularities of. 

22 

37 

Collective nouns. 

18 

3 

Ataner, defective verb. 

23 

3 

numerals defined . . . 

20 

2 

Augmentative adjectives. 

20 

17 

substantives, Syntax of 

18 

3 

endings. 

18 

4 

«t it tt tt 

27 

23 

nouns . 

18 

4 

Coming, To be, how rendered . . 

24 

19 
















































































INDEX 


IX 


Sec. Page Sec. Page 


Como in comparisons of equality 

25 

14 

Cual, El, used as an adjective . . 

19 

36 

Various uses of . 

25 

32 

“ Lo. 

19 

36 

Common noun defined. 

18 

1 

Cual, interrogative adjective . . . 

21 

10 

Comparative degree defined . . . 

25 

4 

neuter ...» 

21 

12 

Comparison, Forms of. 

25 

4 

Cualquiera, Apocopation of . . . 

21 

22 

Complex sentence defined .... 

21 

24 

indefinite pronoun . . 

19 

39 

Compound copreterit . 

23 

28 

Cuan, Apocopated form of cuanto 

25 

17 

future. 

23 

27 

Cuando . 

25 

34 

noun. 

18 

2 

Cuanto as a neuter. 

25 

17 

nouns, Gender of . . . 

18 

27 

correlative of tanto . . . 

25 

16 

postpreterit . 

23 

27 

mas . . . mas. 

25 

18 

present . 

23 

25 

mas . . . tanto mas . . 

25 

18 

preterit . 

23 

27 

Various uses of. 

25 

36 

tenses. Position of aux- 



Cuanto, Interrogative adjective . 

21 

12 

iliary in . . . 

27 

5 

neuter . . 

21 

12 

formed with ser 

24 

20 

Use of, in expressing dis- 



of the indicative 



tance . 

23 

16 

mode .... 

23 

25 

Cuantos as the equivalent of todos 



of the subjunc- 



los que. 

25 

17 

tive mode . . 

23 

31 

Cuantos, Interrogative adjective . 

21 

12 

word defined. 

18 

2 

Cumplir, Uses of. 

24 

31 

Con, preceding an infinitive . . . 

24 

6 

Cumplirse, Uses of. 

24 

32 

Concernir, defective verb . . 

23 

3 

Cuyo, Relative possessive adjec- 



Concord of the adjective. 

27 

16 

tive. 

21 

9 

verb . 

27 

22 

Use of, as a demonstrative 



Principles of. 

27 

16 

adjective. 

21 

9 

Conditional expressions not intro- 



used instead of el cual . . . 

19 

36 

duced by si .... 

23 

40 

Cuyo, Interrogative adjective . . 

21 

12 

propositions with im- 






plied negation . . . 

23 

38 

D 



sentences . 

23 

37 

D, Omissions of the sound of . . 

16 

21 

(* *« 

23 

47 

“ Silent. 

16 

9 

«« »« 

24 

4 

Sounds of . 

16 

6 

Conjugation defined . 

17 

12 

Dar, applied to the hour of day . 

23 

7 

of regular verbs . . 

17 

19 

“ Irregularities of. 

22 

39 

Conjugations, The three. 

17 

19 

“ Various uses of. 

24 

32 

Conjunction defined. 

16 

33 

Dative case defined . 

17 

25 

Conjunctional phrases. List of . . 

26 

37 

“ Emphatic. 

19 

12 

Conmigo. 

17 

27 

“ Functions of .... 

19 

6 

Consonants. 

16 

3 

“ indicating eagerness 



Contigo. 

17 

27 

or completeness . 

22 

5 

Contractions of de. 

20 

28 

“ Jocose . 

19 

12 

“ the definite article 

20 

28 

of interest. 

19 

11 

Coordinating propositions .... 

19 

28 

“ “ possession .... 

19 

13 

Copreterit and preterit. 

23 

24 

“ with passive voice . 

22 

11 

tense defined. 

17 

16 

pronominal 



“ “ Uses of. 

23 

20 

verbs .... 

22 

8 

(( «< »• »* 

23 

22 

“ “ ser . 

19 

14 

it •« «• •• 

23 

48 

“ constructions. Redundant 

19 

7 

«• *» *• •• 

23 

39 

“ defined . 

19 

3 

Corroer, Use and conjugation of 

23 

2 

Prepositional case used 



Creer and pensar . . . .. 

24 

55 

as a . . 

19 

9 

“ Use of the subjunctive with 

21 

31 

phrase . . 

19 

3 

*' Uses of. 

24 

30 

“ relations. 

19 

4 

Cual. 

25 

15 

“ rendered into English by 



“ El. 

19 

33 

an accusative. 

19 

5 
























































X 


INDEX 



Sec. Page 


Sec. 

Page 

Dative represented in English by 



Demonstrative adjectives, Uses of 

20 

23 

the subject of the verb . 

19 

13 

adverbs defined . 

25 

2 

Use of, with ser. 

19 

14 

pronouns, Neuter 

18 

29 

De los mas, Superlative adverbial 



Demonstratives defined. 

20 

1 

phrase . 

25 

12 

Dependent proposition. 

21 

24 

44 Use of, after certain adverbs . 

26 

14 

verb. 

21 

25 

44 44 ininterjectional 



Derivative adverbs. 

25 

3 

phrases . 

26 

39 

defined . 

18 

2 

adjectival phrases 

20 

10 

verbs . 

22 

24 

possessive phrases 

20 

13 

Derived noun. 

18 

2 


21 

6 

word . 

18 

2 

the passive con- 



words, Rules for the ad- 



struction. 

22 

10 

dition of endings to 



to denote possession . 

17 

28 

form. 

18 

4 

with collective numer- 



Desde with the subjectless hacer 

23 

13 

als. 

21 

16 

Use of que with. 

26 

16 

with partitive numerals 

2f 

20 

Diminutive adjectives. 

20 

15 

Uses of, with the infinitive . . 

24 

6 

adverbs . 

20 

18 

Various uses of. 

26 

12 

endings . 

18 

7 

Deber, Various uses of. 

24 

33 

nouns . 

18 

6 

Decir, Irregularities of. 

22 

40 

Diphthongs. 

16 

11 

the deriva- 



Direct questions. 

19 

32 

tives of 

22 

41 

Distance, Expression of. 

23 

16 

Various uses of. 

24 

36 

Diz que. 

22 

41 

Declension. 

17 

26 

Donde . 

25 

38 

Defective verbs . 

23 

1 

Dormir and dormirse. 

22 

6 

Definite article, Ambiguity in the 



Doubtful predicate. 

21 

36 

use of the . . . 

27 

18 




Contractions o f 



E 



the. 

17 

8 

E, Sound of. 

16 

3 

Contractions of 



E used instead of y. 

26 

37 

the. 

20 

28 

Each other, how rendered .... 

19 

20 

Forms of the . . 

20 

28 

Echar, Uses of. 

24 

39 

“ 44 The. 

17 

7 

Elliptical expressions with infini- 



44 substantiv- 



tive preceded by relative .... 

24 

13 

ized .... 

20 

45 

Elio, neuter personal pronoun . . 

18 

29 

Use of, with fern- 



Special uses of. 

18 

38 

inine substan- 



44 Use of. 

18 

32 

tives. 

17 

8 

En followed by a gerund. 

24 

18 

Use of, with fern- 



Various uses of. 

26 

16 

inine substan- 



Encontrarse, meaning to be . . . 

22 

6 

tives. 

20 

29 

Endings, Augmentative. 

18 

4 

Use of, with the 



Diminutive. 

18 

7 

infinitive . . . 

24 

2 

Rules for the addition of 

18 

4 

Various uses of 

20 

28 

Entre si. 

19 

23 

»• it •« a 

20 

41 

Epicene nouns defined. 

18 

18 

»• *» M «< it 

21 

4 

Erguir, Irregularities of. 

22 

35 


21 

6 

Errar, Irregularities of. 

22 

26 


25 

9 

Esa, in letter writing. 

20 

27 


25 

11 

Ese and aquel. 

20 

24 

Dejar, Various uses of. 

24 

37 

Uses of. 

20 

23 

Dejarse, Uses of. 

24 

38 

Ese, substantivized demonstra- 



Del. 

17 

8 

tive. 

20 

26 

Demonstrative adjectives .... 

20 

25 

Eso, esto, aquello. 

18 

30 

Substan- 



Esta, in letter writing. 

20 

27 

tivized 

20 

27 

Estar and ser. 

17 

20 


































































INDEX 


xi 



Sec. 

Page 



Sec. 

Page 

Estar as a subjectless verb . . 

23 

7 

Gender of nouns in -o . 

18 

20 

Conjugation of . 

17 

23 


44 44 (4 44 

18 

25 

44 Uses of. 

17 

22 


44 44 44 

-r . 

18 

20 

Este, Uses of . 

20 

23 

44 

44 44 44 44 

18 

25 

Este, demonstrative pronoun . . 

^20 

27 

44 

-s. 

18 

20 

substantivized demonstra- 



4 4 

44 44 44 44 

18 

26 . 

tive. 

20 

26 

44 

4 4 4 4 4 4 

-U. 

18 

20 

Esto, eso. aquello . 

18 

30 

44 

44 44 44 44 


26 

Etymology defined. 

16 

1 

4 4 

4 4 4 4 41 

-X. 

18 

20 

Exclamation mark, Use of . . . . 

16 

34 

4 4 


18 

26 




44 

4 4 4 4 4 4 

-y. 

18 

20 

F 



44 

44 4 4 4 4 4 4 

18 

26 

F altar, Uses of. 

24 

41 

44 

44 44 44 

-Z. 

18 

20 

Fantasma, Gender of . . . 

18 

122 

“ 


18 

26 

Feminine form. 

17 

6 

4 4 

numbers. 

21 

14 

gender . 

17 

7 

4 4 

substantives according 



Figurarse, Gramatical construe- 




to sex . 

18 

15 

tion of . 

22 

8 

•* 

words used as their own 



Frito and freido. 

22 

52 


names. 

18 

21 

Future tense defined. 

17 

15 

Genders, Nouns having two . . . 

18 

27 

Primary uses of . . 

23 

32 

Gerund after en. 

24 

18 

Special uses of . . 

23 

49 

“ 

as an adjective. 

24 

17 

used instead of the 



44 

The . 

17 

10 

imperative .... 

23 

51 

4 4 

44 

24 

14 

G 



44 

as an adverb .... 

24 

14 



“ 

the equivalent of a 



G, Sounds of. 

16 

6 


conjunction . . 

24 

16 

Gender as applied to adjectives . 

17 

7 

44 

the equivalent of a 



44 nouns . . . 

17 

6 


relative adverb . 

24 

16 

44 personal pro- 



44 

Use of, with andar .... 

24 

19 

nouns . . 

17 

8 

44 

ir . 

24 

19 

forms . 

18 

16 

4 4 

Verbal character of the . 

24 

15 

of adjectives. 

20 

22 

Gerunds used as pure adverbs . . 

24 

19 

4 ‘ compound nouns . . . 

18 

27 

Going, To be, how rendered . . . 

24 

19 

names of cities .... 

18 

20 

Grammar, Spanish (see Spanish 



“ .letters .... 

18 

20 

Grammar) 



44 44 44 44 rivers and 



Grande, Apocopation of . 

21 

23 

oceans . . 

18 

21 





seas, moun- 




II 



tains, and 



H . . 


16 

6 

ships . . . 

18 

21 

Haber 

and tener. Difference be- 



44 nouns according to end- 




tween. 

17 

18 

ing. 

IS 

20 

44 

Conjugation of. 

17 

18 

44 44 General remarks 



“ 

4 4 4 4 

17 

32 

on the. 

18 

28 

44 

Irregularities of . 

22 

41 

indicated by the 



“ 

mas que. No. 

24 

13 

definite article 

17 

8 

4 4 

meaning there to be . . . 

23 

15 

U (* It t 

in -a. 

IS 

20 

** 

que followed by an infini- 



€ 4 »* 14 II j 

-d. 

18 

20 


tive. 

24 

12 

II ii II •* 

-e. 

18 

20 

“ 

Use of, to express distance 

23 

16 

11 44 44 44 j 

18 

20 

44 

used without a subject . . 

23 

15 

4 4 44 If 4 4 4 4 

18 

24 

44 

Various uses of. 

24 

42 

44 14 44 44 | 

18 

20 

Hacer applied to the weather . . 

23 

8 

44 44 44 44 44 

18 

24 

4 4 

time elapsed . . 

23 

10 

.4 4. .4 4. ^ 

18 

20 

44 

«« t* •« •• 

23 

14 

44 44 44 44 44 

18 

24 

44 

followed by an infinitive . 

24 

10 





































































Xll 


INDEX 



Sec. Page 



Sec. Page 

Hacer, Irregularities of . 

22 

42 

Infinitive preceded by con .... 

24 

6 

Various uses of . 

24 

45 

4 4 

“ “ de . 

24 

6 

Hallarse, meaning to be . 

22 

6 

4 4 

que .... 

24 

12 

Hasta, Use of que with . 

26 

17 

4 4 

Substantive and verbal 



“ Various uses of . 

26 

17 


character of the . . . 

24 

2 

He . 

22 

41 

“ 

The. 

24 

1 

Hembra, Use of, to indicate sex . 

18 

18 

4 4 

44 as a neuter substan- 



Hundreds, Reckoning by . 

21 

15 


tive . 

18 

33 

Hypothetic mode, Formation of . 

21 

45 

4 4 

“ “ “ pure substan- 



“ Tenses of the 




tive . 

24 

3 

(see Tenses) 



“ 

Use of, after prepositions 

17 

11 

“ 44 Uses of ... . 

21 

45 

4 4 

“ “ in exclamations . 

24 

14 

replaced by the preterit 



4 ( 

in s te ad o f the 



subjunctive .... 

23 

46 


imperative . . 

24 

14 




44 

the article with . 

20 

37 

I 



44 

44 ^4 4 44 44 44 

24 

2 

I, Sound of. 

16 

4 

44 

with de and para 

20 

13 

Imperative, Compound, how 



4 4 

Uses of uno with the . . 

24 

3 

formed. 

23 

36 

Infinitives connected by y . . . . 

27 

30 

English, first person 



Inflection defined. 

17 

12 

singular. 

21 

43 

* 4 

of adjectives. 

20 

21 

first person plural. 



Inflective words . 

16 

28 

Use of, in self ad- 



Interjection defined. 

16 

33 

dress . 

21 

43 

Interjections, List of pure .... 

26 

38 

forms, Irregular . . 

22 

24 


Sacred names used 



forms used in affirm- 




as ... . 

16 

33 

ative sentences . . 

17 

19 


names used 



forms used in nega- 




as ... . 

26 

39 

tive sentences . . 

17 

20 


Words occasionally 



mode defined .... 

17 

14 


used as . 

26 

39 

Tenses of the 

23 

36 

Interrogative adjectives . 

21 

10 

The, as an elliptical 




pronouns defined . 

19 

32 

form of the sub- 




sentence, Indirect . 

19 

33 

junctive . 

21 

27 

Intransitive verbs . 

17 

24 

Impersonal quasi-reflexive con- 



4 

used pronomi- 



structions .... 

22 

13 


nally .... 

22 

6 

verbs (see also Sub- 



Ir and venir, Difference between . 

24 

49 

jectless verbs) . . . 

23 

17 

Irregularities of . 

22 

42 

Indefinite article . 

20 

50 

“ Use 

of gerund with . 

24 

19 

Forms of the . 

20 

46 

Various uses of. 

24 

48 

44 The . 

17 

7 

Irregular participles. 

22 

24 

used subs tan- 



4 4 

List of . . . 

22 

51 

tively . 

20 

46 

4 4 

verbs, Class I. 

22 

25 

“ Uses of ... . 

20 

47 

4 4 

“ M II . 

22 

27 

“ “ “ “ 

21 

5 

44 

44 M III ... . 

22 

28 

pronouns . 

19 

37 

1 4 

“ “ IV ... . 

22 

29 

Indicative mode defined .... 

17 

13 

44 

.4 4. y 

22 

30 

Indirect questions. 

19 

32 

4 4 

“ 44 VI ... . 

22 

30 

Infinitive after hacer. 

24 

10 

4 4 

44 4 4 VII ... . 

22 

32 

mandar. 

24 

10 

“ 

44 “ VIII . . . 

22 

33 

verbs of perception 

24 

8 


“ 44 IX ... . 

22 

34 

defined . 

17 

9 


4 4 4 4 X. 

22 

35 

endings. 

17 

9 


44 “ XI ... . 

22 

37 

preceded by a. 

24 

4 

4 4 

Classes of ... 

22 

23 

a relative . 

24 

13 

4 4 

defined. 

17 

19 

al. 

24 

5 

4 4 

44 Table of. 

22 

54 
















































INDEX 


• • • 
Xlll 



Sec. 

Page 


Sec. Page 

Irregrular verbs, Unclassified . . 

22 

37 

Masculine plural form, denoting: 



It followed by a form of to be and 



individuals of both 



a substantive. 

23 

8 

sexes . 

18 

16 




plural form, denoting: 



«J 



individuals of both 



J, Silent. 

16 

9 


1 o 

IQ 

Sound of. 

16 

6 


Lo 

iy 

Use of x instead of . 

16 

9 

Mayor as a comparative. 

25 

5 

Jamas . 

25 

40 

superlative. 

25 

10 




parte de, La. 

25 

14 

Jocose dative case. 

19 

12 







Medio, Abnormal use of. 

27 

21 

L 



Menor as a comparative. 

25 

5 

La and le, dative cases of ella . . 

17 

26 

Menos de. 

25 

7 

Le and lo as accusative cases of el 

17 

26 

. . . de lo que, Compara- 



Letter writing:, Use of esta and esa 



tive form. 

25 

7 

in. 

20 

27 

. . . del que, Comparative 



Letters, Double. 

16 

2 

form . 

25 

7 

of the alphabet. 

16 

2 

. . . que, Comparative 



Singfle .. 

16 

2 

form . 

25 

4 

Liquid r. 

16 

7 

in superlative forms . . . 

25 

9 

LI. 

16 

2 

Various uses of. 

25 

41 

Sound of. 

16 

6 

Mientras mas ... mas. 

25 

18 

Llegfar, Uses of. 

24 

49 

... tanto mas . . 

25 

18 

Llevar, Uses of. 

24 

50 

Mil should not be preceded by un 

21 

15 

Lo and le as accusative cases of el 

17 

26 

Millon, Grammatical construction 



“ de, meaning: the fact, the say- 



of. 

21 

16 

ing:, etc. 

20 

26 

Mirar, Uses of. 

24 

52 

“ mas de, meaning: the most of 

25 

14 

Mismo, Abnormal use of. 

27 

21 

neuter substantive . 

18 

34 

Emphatic use of. 

19 

24 

Use of definite article 



modifying: and preceding: 



instead of. 

20 

45 

several substantives . . 

27 

17 

que . 

18 

36 

Por eso. 

25 

43 

Use of, in superlative phrases 

25 

11 

“ “ lo . 

25 

43 

with hacer. 

24 

45 

Use of, with demonstra- 



Various uses of . 

18 

35 

tive adverbs. 

25 

43 

Long: vowels. 

16 

4 

Uses of, in reflexive con- 



Los mas de, meaning: the greater 



structions. 

19 

21 

number of . 

25 

14 

Mitad, Use of the definite article 






with. 

20 

39 

M 



Mode. 

17 

13 

Macho, Use of, to indicate sex . . 

18 

18 

Modes, Number of. 

17 

13 

Mandar decir. 

24 

12 

Modifiers defined and explained . 

16 

24 

followed by an infinitive 

24 

10 

Mood (see Mode ) 



Mar, Gender of. 

18 

26 

Morir and morirse. 

22 

6 

Margin, Gender of . 

18 

25 

Mucho, adjective. 

25 

45 

Mas and pero. 

26 

27 

adverb. 

25 

44 

Mas de. 

25 

7 

Ellipsis of, with hacer . . 

23 

14 

uno. 

27 

29 

neuter. 

25 

46 

“ . . . de lo que. Comparative 



Mucho s. 

25 

45 

form . 

25 

7 

Muerto and matado. 

22 

52 

“ ... del que, Comparative 



Multiple numerals defined .... 

20 

2 

form . 

25 

7 

Muy. 

25 

43 

“ ... que, Comparative form 

25 

4 




“ Special uses of. 

25 

41 

N 



“ Uses of, in superlative forms 

25 

9 

Nada. 

25 

46 

Masculine form . 

17 

6 

Nadie, indefinite pronoun .... 

19 

38 

g:ender. 

17 

7 

Name, Family, defined. 

18 

2 





































































XIV 


INDEX 



Sec. 

Page 

O 

Sec. 

Page 

Names, Pet. 

18 

8 

O,Sound of. 

16 

4 

Negative sentence, Form of the . 

17 

29 

6. 

26 

32 

Negatives, Order of. 

25 

46 

“ Syntax of. 

27 

36 

Rules for the combina- 



Object, Direct, of a verb (see Ac- 



tion of. 

19 

38 

cusative) 



Neuter gender. 

17 

7 

of a preposition. 

16 

32 

11 a 

18 

28 

Oblique cases. 

17 

26 

personal pronouns .... 

18 

28 

Ocurrirse, Grammatical construe- 



pronouns . 

18 

32 

tion of. 

22 

8 

substantives. 

18 

28 

Oir decir. 

24 

10 

Neuters. 

18 

28 

hablar. 

24 

10 

Concord of verb referring 



de. ... 

24 

10 

to several. 

27 

31 

Irregularities of. 

22 

43 

Ni. 

26 

29 

with an infinitive as its accu- 



Syntax of. 

27 

24 

sative . 

24 

8 

Ninguno, Apocopation of ... . 

21 

21 

Ojala. 

21 

27 

indefinite pronoun . . . 

19 

38 

Use of preterit subjunctive 



No, Position of. 

27 

5 

with . 

23 

44 

Use of, in elliptical expres- 



Oler, Irregularities of . 

22 

28 

sions. 

27 

7 

Olvidar, Grammatical construe- 



with other negatives 

25 

46 

tion of. 

22 

9 


27 

6 

One another, how rendered . . . 

19 

20 

Nominative case defined. 

17 

25 

One’s, how rendered. 

19 

39 

Non-neuter personal pronouns 



Optative sentences. 

23 

43 

defined . 

17 

9 

Orden, Gender of. 

18 

25 

Nos. 

19 

1 

Order of words. 

27 

1 

Nosotros used instead of yo . . . 

19 

1 

Principles relating 



Nouns, Augmentative. 

18 

4 

to . 

17 

28 

Classes of . 

18 

1 

Ordinal numerals. 

21 

18 

Collective. 

18 

3 

defined . 

20 

2 

defined . 

17 

4 

Ortografla. 

16 

1 

Diminutive. 

18 

6 

Orthographic changes in verbal 



Epicene, defined. 

18 

18 

forms. 

22 

22 

Gender of (see Gender of 



Orthography defined. 

16 

1 

nouns) 



Remarks on ... . 

16 

19 

having two genders . . . 

18 

27 




numbers . . . 

18 

14 

P 



used in the plural only . . 

18 

14 




Number as applied to adjectives 

17 

2 

Pagar, Grammatical construction 



sub stan- 



of. 

24 

52 

tives 

17 

1 

Para, Uses of. 

19 

6 

t 4 44 44 44 , 

verbs . . 

17 

12 

44 44 44 

20 

13 

in adjectives. 

20 

21 

44 44 44 

26 

18 

geographical names . 

18 

14 

Parte, Uses of . 

20 

39 

4 4 4 4 

nouns . 

18 

10 

44 44 44 

21 

20 

“ Plural. 

17 

2 

Participle, Adjective . 

24 

20 

Singular. 

17 

2 

defined . 

17 

9 

Numbers, Integral. 

21 

13 

followed by que and a 



Numerals, Classes of. 

20 

2 

verb. 

24 

23 

defined . 

20 

2 

of pronominal verbs . 

22 

8 

Position of. 

27 

2 

Past, defined. 

17 

10 

Nunca . 

25 

40 

preceded by antes de, 






despues de, etc. . . . 

24 

24 

N 



Present, defined .... 

17 

11 




Substantive, defined 

24 

20 

N, Sound of. 

16 

6 

“ The . 

24 

20 







































































INDEX 


xv 


Sec. Page Sec . Page 


Participle, Use of, in absolute 



Poco . 

25 

47 

clauses . 

24 

23 

Pocos . 

25 

48 

Participles, Irregular. 

22 

51 

Poder, Irregularities of . . 

22 

44 

Verbs having: two . . 

22 

52 

Uses of . 

24 

55 

Partitive numerals . 

21 

19 

Podrir, Irregularities of. 

22 

45 

defined .... 

20 

2 

Poner, Irregularities of ... . 

22 

46 

Parts of speech . 

16 

23 

Por, Use of, in expressing: rate . . 

20 

38 

Pasar, Uses of . 

24 

53 

the passive con- 



Passive construction. 

22 

9 

struction .... 

22 

10 

form of verbs. 

22 

10 

Various uses of. 

26 

21 

voice of verbs. 

22 

10 

Position of pronominal cases . . 

27 

8 

^ith dative case . . 

22 

11 

the adjective . 

27 

2 

Past participle (see Participle) 



adverb. 

27 

5 

Pensar and creer . 

24 

55 

Possession, Dative case of*. . . . 

19 

13 

Uses of . 

24 

54 

expressed by means 



Perder, Use of a before the accu- 



of de. 

17 

28 

sative of. 

26 

3 

Possessive adjective . 

. 21 

4 

Pero and mas. 

26 

27 

adjective of the third 



sino. 

26 

27 

person used idio- 



Person, as applied to substantives 

17 

4 

matically. 

21 

8 

•> »t »« M . 

verbs . . . 

17 

12 

Possessive adjectives . 

21 

1 

Persona . 

18 

19 

defined . . 

20 

1 

Personal pronouns. 

17 

5 

case, English .... 

17 

28 

Declension of 



Posteriority, Tenses of (see Tetises 



non-neuter . 

17 

26 

of posteriority ) 



Definition of 



Postpreterit, Primary meanings 



non-neuter . 

17 

9 

and uses of ... . 

23 

23 

Neuter .... 

18 

28 

tense defined .... 

17 

16 

Pesar, Grammatical construction 



Use of, as a mark of 



of. 

24 

55 

politeness . 

23 

42 

Pet names. 

18 

8 

“ in conditional 



Phonologry defined. 

16 

1 

sentences . 

23 

37 

Principles of. 

16 

2 

“ in conditional 



Phrase, Accusative prepositional. 



sentences . 

23 

45 

defined . 

19 

15 

“ to denote un- 



Adjectival. 

16 

31 

certainty. 



Adjective . 

16 

31 

etc. 

23 

49 

Adverb . 

16 

31 

Postrero, Apocopation of ... . 

21 

22 

Adverbial. 

16 

31 

Predicate adjective defined .... 

16 

28 

“ Dative prepositional . . . 

19 

3 

defined . 

16 

22 

defined . 

16 

30 

Propositions of doubt- 



“ Prepositional. 

16 

32 

ful. 

21 

36 

“ Substantive. 

16 

31 

substantive defined . . 

20 

14 

Phrases, List of adverbial .... 

25 

51 

Predicating: forms of verbs de- 



conjunctional 

26 

37 

fined . 

21 

24 

Placer, Uses and irregularities of 



Preposition, Definition and distin- 



the verb. 

22 

44 

g:uishing- features of the .... 

16 

32 

Plural nouns having: no corre- 



Prepositional case defined .... 

17 

26 

sponding: singular forms 

18 

14 

used by itself 



number. 

17 

2 

as a dative . 

19 

9 

of adjectives and substan- 



Prepositions, Infinitive used after 

17 

11 

fives. 

17 

3 

Present participle (see Gerund ) 



compound nouns . . . 

18 

13 

tense. 

23 

20 

proper nouns. 

18 

12 

defined . 

17 

15 

simple common nouns 

18 

10 

Use of, instead of 



surnames. 

18 

12 

the future .... 

23 

48 



















































XVI 


INDEX 



Sec. 

Page 


Sec. Page 

Present tense, Use of, to express 



Pronunciation, Deviations from 



habitual or repeated actions or 



the exact rules of 

16 

20 

conditions . 

23 

22 

General rules of . 

16 

10 

Preso and prendido. 

22 

53 

of the consonants 

16 

5 

Preterit and copreterit, Difference 



the vowels . . 

16 

3 

between. 

23 

24 

two-vowel com- 



indicative, Special uses 



binations . . 

16 

12 

of. 

23 

52 

Proper noun defined. 

18 

1 

Primary meaning: and 



Proposition defined. 

19 

28 

uses of. 

23 

23 

tt «• 

21 

24 

subjunctive form in -ra . 

23 

38 

Prosodia defined. 

16 

1 

Improper sub- 



Protasis defined. 

23 

38 

stitution of, 



Provisto and proveldo. 

22 

53 

for hypo* 



Public functionaries, Forms used 



thetic . . . 

23 

46 

by.;. 

19 

2 

Use of, as a 






mark of po- 



Q 



liteness . . 

23 

42 

Q, Sound of. 

16 

7 

Use of, in con- 



Quasi-reflexive construction de- 



ditional sen- 



fined. 

22 

13 

fences . . . 

23 

45 

construction, The 

22 

12 

Use of, in- 



>4 t« it ti 

22 

20 

stead of the 



constructions, Im- 



copreterit 

23 

53 

personal .... 

22 

13 

Use of, with 



constructions, 



ojala . . . 

23 

44 

Syntax of . . . 

22 

18 

tense defined. 

17 

15 

form of the verb 

22 

13 

Primero, Apocopation of . . 

21 

19 

form. Third per- 



Primitive noun defined. 

18 

2 

son plural used 



of a derived word . . . 

18 

2 

instead of . . . 

22 

21 

word defined. 

18 

2 

forms, Ambiguity 



Principal proposition defined . . . 

19 

29 

in the use of . . 

22 

20 

li M ti 

21 

25 

forms, Rules for 



verb, defined. 

21 

25 

rendering . . . 

22 

13 

Progressive form of verbs .... 

23 

19 

Que, Accusative, does not take a 

26 

2 

“ Two ways of 



before an infinitive. 

24 

12 

viewing - . . . 

24 

15 

“* conjunction. 

26 

32 

Pronominal verbs . 

22 

1 

“ El. 

20 

41 

“ Conjugation of . 

22 

2 

phrase relative. 

19 

33 

defined ..... 

22 

1 

Use of, instead of quien . 

20 

45 

formed from in- 



“ Lo. 

19 

36 

transitive verbs 

22 

6 

Omission of the announcing 

21 

32 

formed from 



relative, Uses of. 

19 

29 

transitive verbs 

22 

3 

Use of, between a participle 



Participle of . . 

22 

8 

and verb . 

24 

23 

requiring a da- 



“ “ in comparisons . . 

25 

4 

five case . . . 

22 

8 

with desde. 

26 

16 

Pronouns defined. 

17 

4 

“ “ “ “ hacer. 

23 

11 

Indefinite. 

19 

37 

..hasta. 

26 

17 

Neuter demonstra- 



Que de, exclamatory adjectival 



five. 

18 

29 

phrase . 

27 

29 

Personal (see Personal 



interrogative adjective . . . 

21 

10 

pronouns) 



pronoun . . . 

19 

32 

Position of (see Position 



Querer, Irregularities of. 

22 

47 

of cases of pronouns) 



Use of a with accusative 



Relative. 

19 

26 

of. 

26 

3 








































INDEX 


xvii 



Sec. Page 


Sec. Page 

Querer, Use of. in optative sen- 



Santo, Apocopation of . 

21 

23 

fences . 

23 

44 

Satisfacer, Irregularities of . . . 

22 

48 

Various uses of. 

24 

57 

Se in quasi-refiexive constructions 

22 

13 

Questions, Direct. 

19 

32 

reflexive form. 

19 

18 

Indirect. 

19 

32 

Use of, with pronominal verbs 

22 

2 

Quien, Uses of. 

19 

30 

Sentence, The, defined. 

16 

22 

Quien, interrogative pronoun . . 

19 

32 

Sentences, Classes of . 

16 

23 

De, meaning: whose .... 

21 

12 

Sentir, Various uses of. 

23 

10 

Quienquiera, Indefinite pronoun . 

19 

39 

M 11 4« (« - 

24 

59 

R 



Ser and estar, Difference between 

17 

20 



applied to the hour of day . . 

23 

7 

R. Liquid. 

16 

7 

as a subjectless verb. 

23 

8 

Sounds of. 

16 

7 

Compound tenses formed 



Raer, Use and conjugation of . . 

23 

2 

with . 

24 

20 

Razon de, A. 

26 

9 

Conjugation of. 

17 

23 

Recien. 

25 

3 

de followed by an infinitive . . 

24 

7 

Reciprocal construction. 

19 

20 

followed by a predicate sub- 



Redundant accusative construe- 



stantive. 

27 

30 

tions. 

19 

15 

Use of dative and dative case 



construction defined . 

19 

7 

with. 

19 

14 

dative constructions . 

19 

7 

in the passive voice . . 

22 

12 

forms, Generalities on 

17 

27 

Various uses of. 

17 

21 

“ Special .... 

19 

22 

Servir, Various uses of. 

24 

60 

ker . x ■ - Dnstructions ..... 

19 

17 

Sex indicated by independent 



: orm se. 

19 

18 

nouns . . 

18 

18 

verbs defined . 

1 22 

1 

II 4 4 II . « j 

the words 



verbs. Conjugation of . . 

17 

19 

macho and 



defined . 

17 

19 

hembra . 

18 

18 

Reir and reirse. 

22 

7 

Substantives having: special 



Relative adjectives defined .... 

19 

27 

forms to indicate. 

18 

16 

adverbs. 

25 

39 

Sexes, Individuals of both .... 

18 

16 

defined . 

19 

27 

»4 11 «« «» 

18 

19 

as a predicate, Syntax of 

27 

32 

Short vowels. 

16 

4 

pronouns . 

19 

26 

Si . 

26 

35 

Relatives, Classes of. 

19 

27 

“ Omission of, in conditional sen- 



defined . 

19 

27 

tences . 

23 

41 

followed by infinitives 

24 

13 

Si. 

25 

49 

Phrase . 

19 

32 

“ Entre (see Entre si) 



Restrictive and coor- 



“ reflexive prepositional case . . 

19 

19 

dinating:. 

19 

28 

Silent consonants. 

16 

9 

Reponer, meaning: to reply. Use 



A A 

U. 

16 

4 

of. 

23 

2 

Simple noun defined. 

18 

3 

Restrictive propositions. 

19 

28 

tenses of the subjunctive 



Roer, Use and conjugation of . . 

23 

2 

mode. 

23 

29 

Roto and rompido . 

22 

53 

word defined . 

18 

2 

rr, double letter. 

16 

2 

Singular number. 

17 

2 

“ Sound of. 

16 

7 

Sino, Accentuation of. 

16 

18 




“ and pero. 

26 

27 

S 



“ Use of, with negatives . . . 

26 

28 

S, Silent. 

16 

9 

Sintaxis defined . 

16 

1 

** Sound of. 

16 

7 

Sobresalir, Irregularities of . . . 

22 

35 

Saber. Familiar use of the future 



Soler . 

23 

3 

of. 

23 

52 

Spanish Grammar. 

16 

1 

“ Irregularities of. 

22 

48 

letters. Sounds of the . . 

16 

2 

** Various uses of. 

24 

58 

Spelling:, Changes in. 

22 

22 

Salir. Irregularities of. 

22 

35 

Stem of verbs defined. 

17 

19 


































































INDEX 


xviii 


Sec. Page Sec. Page 


Su, Ambiguity in the use of . . . 

21 

5 

Subjunctive, Use of, after por . . . 



* • 

deusted.su . . . deel, etc. 

21 

6 

que, cuanto mas 



M Use 

of the definite article in- 



. . . tanto mas, etc. 

21 

41 


stead of. 

20 

41 

Use of, after verbs 



II ft 4 

“ with reference to uno 

19 

39 

expressing desire . 

21 

25 

Subject defined . 

16 

22 

Use of, after verbs 



ft 4 

Position of . . ' . 

17 

28 

expressing doubt, 



Subjectless verbs . 

23 

4 

denial, or u n c e r- 



“ 

“ Conjugation of 

23 

4 

tainty . 

21 

30 

t« 

41 denoting natural 



Use of, after verbs 




phenomena . 

23 

4 

expressing feeling 



< >. 

“ governing a 



or emotion .... 

21 

28 


gerund or an 



Use of, after verbs of 




infinitive . . . 

23 

5 

attainment .... 

21 

29 

»i 

No subject un- 



Use of, after verbs or 




derstood with 

23 

4 

phrases expressing 




44 No subject un- 



command, com pul- 




derstood with 

23 

8 

sion, etc . 

21 

27 

ft ft 

used as verbs 



Use of, in affirmative 




of full inflec- 



sentences having a 




tion. 

23 

5 

conditional form . 

21 

43 

Subjunctive after expressions of 



Use of, in alternative 




supposition, con- 



expressions .... 

21 

42 


cession, and excep- 



Use of, in dependent 




tion. 

21 

40 

propositions . . . 

21 

36 

ft ft 

mode defined .... 

17 

13 

Use of, in impersonal 



* • 

preterit, Simple, used 



sentences . 

21 

29 


instead of 



Use of, in proposi- 




compound 

23 

39 

tions introduced by 



• < 

Use of, in 



the announcing que 

21 

25 


conditional 



Use of, in subordi- 




sentences 

23 

37 

nate relative propo- 




Use of, in op- 



sitions . 

21 

33 


tative sen- 



Use of, to render the 




fences . . 

23 

43 

English present 



•* 

Remarks on the . . 

21 

44 

participle . 

21 

31 

<« 

Use of, after adverbs 



Use of, with creer . . 

21 

31 


of uncertainty . . 

21 

39 

ojala . . 

21 

27 


Use of, after certain 



que . . 

21 

42 


conjunctive and ad- 



thehypo- 




verbial words and 



t he tic 

21 

41 


phrases . 

21 

37 

Subordinate proposition defined . 

19 

29 

4ft 

Use of, after certain 



Substantive defined. 

16 

27 


time expressions . 

21 

38 

used adjectively . . . 

20 

7 

tt 

Use of, after como . 

21 

34 

Substantives, Inflection of, for 



tt 

Use of, after ^cual- 



gender . 

18 

16 


quiera, como, etc. 

21 

34 

Inflection of, for 



11 

Use of, after cuando 

21 

35 

number . 

18 

10 

it 

donde 

21 

34 

44 Plural of. 

17 

3 

it 

14 *4 II , 

el que 

21 

37 

Substantivized adjective, The . . 

20 

3 

tt 

Use of, after expres- 



definite article,The 

20 

45 


sions of condition . 

21 

38 

Superlative, Adjectives having no 



it 

Use of, after expres- 



absolute. 

20 

21 


sions of purpose . 

21 

39 

degree of adjectives 

25 

8 

• i 

Use of, after impera- 



44 adverbs . 

25 

12 


tive forms. 

21 

26 

forms. 

25 

8 























INDEX 


xix 






Sec. 

Page 


Sec. Page 

Superlative phrases defined . . . 

25 

9 

Tenses of the indicative mode . 

17 

15 

Superlatives, Absolute. 

20 

18 

subjunctive mode 

17 

17 

Surname defined. 

18 

2 

H a it it It 

23 

29 

Suyo, 

Ambiguity in the use of . . 

21 

5 

Primary meanings of the 

23 

19 

** 

. . . de usted, suyo . . . de 



Secondary meanings of 




el, etc. 

21 

6 

the. 

23 

37 

Syllables, Division of words into 



Simple. 

17 

15 


orthographic .... 

16 

15 

of the indicative . 

23 

19 

4 * 

Orthographic . 

16 

10 

Tercero, Apocopation of. 

21 

19 

44 

Prosodic . 

16 

10 

»* I# i^ 

21 

23 

Syllepsis. 

27 

33 

There to be. how rendered .... 

23 

15 

Syntax defined. 

16 

1 

They, used indefinitely. 

22 

-21 

44 

General principles of . . 

27 

1 

Third person plural of verbs . . . 

22 

21 

44 

Rudimentary principles 



Time forms of verbs defined . . . 

21 

24 

# 

of. 

17 

28 

Titles, Use of the definite article 







with. 

20 

39 


T 



Todo cuanto. 

25 

17 

T, Silent. 

16 

9 

lo que . 

25 

17 

Tampoco .....'. 

26 

31 

Use of the definite article 



Tan, Apocopated form of tanto . 

25 

15 

with. 

20 

34 

Tanto 

. . . como, meaning both 



Traer, Irregularities of. 

22 

49 


. . . and. 

25 

18 

Transitive verbs. 

17 

24 

44 

cuanto, form of compari- 



used pronomi- 




son. 

25 

16 

nally. 

22 

3 


neuter expression 

25 

17 

Translating from English into 



44 

mas . . . cuanto. 

25 

19 

Spanish. 

18 

36 

4 4 

Uses of, as a comparative 



Tratar, Uses of.• . . . 

24 

63 


of equality. 

25 

14 

Triphthongs. 

16 

14 

Temblar as a subjectless verb . . 

23 

7 

Tu . 

17 

5 

Tener 

and haber, Difference be- 







tween. 

17 

18 

U 



44 

Conjugation of. 

17 

18 

U consonante . 

16 

8 

4 4 

4 4 4 4 

17 

33 

de corazon. 

16 

8 

4 4 

mas que, No. 

24 

13 

Silent. 

16 

4 

4 4 

que followed by an infini- 



Sound of . 

16 

4 


tive. 

24 

12 

Un, Abnormal use of the mas- 



44 

Use of. 

26 

3 

culine form of. 

27 

21 

4 4 

44 in compound tenses 

23 

26 

Omission of. 

21 

20 

4 4 

expressing cold. 



Unclassified irregular verbs . . . 

22 

37 


hunger, etc . . 

23 

9 

Uno, Apocopation of . 

21 

21 

44 

Various uses of. 

24 

61 

-uno, Apocopation of numbers end- 



Tense 

and time distinguished . . 

17 

17 

ing in. 

21 

14 

4 4 

defined . 

17 

14 

Uno a otro. Use of, in reflexive 



Tenses, Compound (see Compound 



constructions. 

19 

22 


lenses) 



and otro. Use of, in reflexive 



44 

Metaphorical uses of . . 

23 

46 

constructions. 

19 

22 

44 

of coexistence defined . 

23 

20 

Indefinite pronoun . 

19 

39 

it 

of coexistence, Primary 



is constructed like a third-per- 




meanings of the .... 

23 

20 

son substantive. 

19 

39 

44 

of posteriority defined . . 

23 

23 

Uses of, with the infinitive . . 

24 

3 

4« 

of posteriority replaced 



Unos meaning about, more or less 

20 

46 


by those of coexistence 

23 

48 

some. 

20 

46 

44 

of posteriority, Speci al 



Usted. 

17 

5 


uses of . 

23 

49 

Prepositional case of . . . 

19 

10 

«« 

44 the hypothetic mode . 

23 

32 

Use of the imperative with 

17 

20 

4 4 

imperative mode . 

23 

36 

Usucapir, Defective verb. 

23 

3 
























































XX 


INDEX 



nA 


V 

Sec. 

Page 

V, Sounds of. 

16 

7 

Spanish names of. 

16 

8 

Valer, Irregularities of. 

22 

35 

Uses of. 

24 

64 

Venir and ir, Difference between . 

24 

49 

Irregularities of. 

22 

50 

Various uses of. 

24 

65 

Ver, Irregularities of. 

22 

50 

with an infinitive. 

24 

8 

Verb, Concord of . * . 

27 

22 

“ Characteristics of the Span- 



ish. 

16 

29 

following several subjects . 

27 

22 

preceding several substan- 



tives connected by y . . . 

27 

28 

referring to a predicate rel- 



ative. 

27 

32 

referring to infinitives con- 



nected by y. 

27 

30 

referring to several neuters 

27 

31 

referring to several substan- 



tives. 

27 

28 

referring to subjects of dif- 



ferent persons. 

27 

25 

referring to substantives 



connected by asi como. 



como or tanto como . . . 

27 

27 

referring to substantives 



connected by ni . 

27 

24 

referring to substantives 



connected by 6. 

27 

26 

referring to two substan- 



tives connected by con . . 

27 

26 

Verbal derivatives defined .... 

17 

10 

«« it it 

21 

24 

Verbs, Defective (see Defective 



verbs) 



having two participles . . 

22 

52 

in -acer, Irregularities of 

22 

28 

“ -ducir, 

22 

29 

-ecer, 

22 

28 

U 44 44 4 4 

-eer. 

22 

30 

4% 44 / 44 44 

-eir, 

22 

31 

ii it ~ tt ti 

-ener, 

22 

24 

“ “ -llir, “ T 

22 

24 

ii it /v< ii ii 

-nir, 

22 

24 

ii ii ii it 

-ocer. 

22 

28 

tt it^ ti it 

-uir, 

22 

34 

Irregular (see Irregular 




verbs,) 


Sec. Page 

Verbs, Pronominal (see Pronomi¬ 
nal verbs) 

Regular (see Regular 
verbs) 

Subjectless (see Subject¬ 
less verbs) 

Time forms of, defined . 21 24 

Uses of some important 24 25 

whose dative is rendered 
into English by an accu¬ 


sative . 19 5 

whose subject in English 

is their dative in Spanish 19 13 

Verse, meaning to be. 22 6 

Vez, Adverbial expressions formed 

with. 25 50 

Vos. 19 3 

Vosotros. 17 5 

Vowel combinations. 16 11 

sounds, Coalescence and 

elision of. 16 20 

Vowels. ig 

Strong. it; 

“ Weak. 16 U 


W 

w.. 

Word forms. 

Words, Division of, into ortho¬ 
graphic syllables . . . 
Grammatical classifica¬ 
tion of. 

Order of (see Order of 
words) 


X 

X, Sounds of. 16 8 

Use of, instead of j. 16 9 

Y 

Y, Sounds of. 16 9 

Use of, in the names of num¬ 
bers . 21 15 

Ya . 25 50 

Yacer, Irregularities of. 22 29 

Z 

Z, Sounds of. 16 9 


16 28 
16 15 

16 23 


a 


















































r 


■ 







- 























• ■ 












- 
















5 





























































# 






















fl I Ms w . • 

. 











































































* 










>• 




* • » ** • •* r 














































* 

. 








































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